D1:
DAM. A construction of wood, stone, or other materials, made
across a stream of water for the purpose of confining it; a
mole.
2. The owner of a stream not navigable, may erect a dam across
it, and employ the water in any reasonable manner, either for his
use or pleasure, so as not to destroy or render useless,
materially diminish, or affect the application of the water by
the proprietors below on the stream. He must not shut the gates
of his dams and detain the water unreasonably, nor let it off in
unusual quantities to the annoyance of his neighbors. 4 Dall.
211; 3 Caines, 207; 13 Mass. 420; 3 Pick, 268; 2 N. H. Rep.
532; 17 John. 306; 3 John. Ch. Rep. 282; 3 Rawle, 256; 2
Conn. Rep. 584; 5 Pick. 199; 20 John. 90; 1 Pick. 180; 4 Id.
460; 2 Binn. 475; 14 Srrg. & Rawle, 71; Id. 9; 13 John. 212;
1 McCord, 580; 3 N. H. Rep. 321; 1 Halst. R. 1; 3 Kents Com.
354.
3. When one side of the stream is owned by one person and the
other by another, neither, without the eonsent of the other, can
build a dam which extends beyond the filum aqua, thread of the
river, without committing a trespass. Cro. Eliz. 269; 12 Mass.
211; Ang. on W. C. 14, 104, 141; vide Lois des Bat. P. 1, c. 3,
s. 1, a. 3; Poth. Traite du Contrat de Societe, second app. 236;
Hill. Ab. Index, h. t.; 7 Cowen, R. 266; 2 Watts, R. 327; 3
Rawle, R. 90; 17 Mass. R. 289; 5 Pick. R. 175; 4 Mass. R. 401.
Vide Inundation.
DAMAGE, torts. The loss caused by one person to another, or to
his property,
either with the design of injuring him, with negligence and
carelessness, or by inevitable accident.
2. He who has caused the damage is bound to repair it and, if
he has done it maliciousiy, he may be. compelled to pay beyond
the actual loss. When damage occurs by accident, without blame to
anyone, the loss is borne by the owner of the thing injured; as,
if a horse run away with his rider, without any fault of the
latter, and injure the property of another person, the injury is
the loss of the owner of the thing. When the damage happens by
the act of God, or inevitable accident, as by tempest, earthquake
or other natural cause, the loss must be borne by the owner. Vide
Com. Dig. h. t.; Sayer on Damages.
3. Pothier defines damage (dommiges et interets) to be the loss
which some one has sustained, and the gain which he has failed of
making. Obl. n. 159.
DAMAGE FEASANT, torts. This is a corruption of the French words
faisant dommage, and signifies doing damage. This term is usually
applied to the injury which animals belonging to one person do
upon the land of another, by feeding there, treading down his
grass, corn, or other production of the earth. 3 Bl. Com. 6; Co.
Litt. 142, 161; Com. Dig. Pleader, 3 M 26. By the common law, a
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distress of animals or things damage feasant is allowed. Cow.
Inst. 230; Gilb. on Distress and Replevin, 21. It was also
allowed by the ancient customs of France. 11 Toull. 402
Repertoire de Jurisprudence, Merlin, au mot Fourriere; 1
Fournel, Traits de Voisinage, au mot Abandon. Vide Animals.
DAMAGED GOODS. In the language of the customs, are goods
subject to duties, which have received some injury either in the
voyage home, or while bonded in warehouses. See Abatement, merc.
law.
DAMAGES, practice. The indemnity given by law, to be recovered
from a wrong doer by the person who has sustained an injury,
either in his person, property, or relative rights, in
consequence of the acts of another.
2. Damages are given either for breaches of contracts, or for
tortious acts.
3. Damages for breach of contract may be given, for example,
for the non-performance of a written or verbal agreement; or of
a covenant to do or not to do a particular thing.
4. As to the measure of damages the general rule is that the
delinquent shall answer for all the injury which results from the
immediate and direct breach of his agreement, but not from
secondary and remote consequences.
5. In cases of an eviction, on covenant of seisin and warranty,
the rule seems to be to allow the consideration money, with
interest and costs. 6 Watts & Serg. 527; 2 Dev. R. 30; 3 Brev.
R. 458. See 7 Shepl. 260; 4 Dev. 46. But in Massachusetts, on
the covenant of warranty, the measure of damages is the value of
the land at the time of eviction. 4 Kent's Com. 462, 3, and the
cases there cited; 3 Mass. 523; 4 Mass. 108; 1 Bay, 19, 265;
3 Desaus. Eq. R. 247; 4 Penn. St. R. 168.
6. In estimating the measure of damages sustained in
consequence of the acts of a common carrier, it frequently
becomes a question whether the value of the goods at the place of
embarkation or the port of destination is the rule to establish
the damages sustained. It has been ruled that the value at the
port of destination is the proper criterion. 12 S. & R. 186;. 8
John. R. 213; 10 John. R. 1; 14 John. R. 170; 15 John. R. 24.
But contrary decisions have taken place. 3 Caines, R. 219 4 Hayw.
R. 112; and see 4 Mass. R. 115; 1 T. R. 31; 4 T. R. 582.
7. Damages for tortious acts are given for acts against the
person, as an assault and battery against the reputation, as
libels and slander, against the property, as trespass, when force
is used; or for the consequential acts of the tort-feasor, as,
when a man, in consequence of building a dam on his own premises,
overflows his neighbor's land; or against the relative rights of
the party injured, as for criminal conversation with his wife.
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8. No settled rule or line of distinction can be marked out
when a possibility of damages shall be accounted too remote to
entitle a party to claim a recompense: each case must be ruled by
its own circumstances. Ham. N. P. 40; Kames on Eq. 73, 74. Vide
7 Vin. Ab. 247; Yelv. 45, a; Id. 176, a; Bac. Ab. h. t.; 1
Lilly's Reg. 525; Domat, liv. 3, t. 5, s. 2, n. 4; Toull. liv.
3, n. 286; 2 Saund. 107, note; 1 Rawle's Rep. 27; Coop. Just.
606; Com. Dig. 11. t.; Bouv. Inst. Index, h. t. See, Cause;
Remote.
9. Damages for torts are either compensatory or vindictive. By
compensatory damages is meant such as are given morely to
recompense a party who has sustained a loss in consequence of the
acts of the defendant, and where there are no circumstances to
aggravate the act, for the purpose of compensating the plaintiff
for his loss; as, for example, Where the defendant had caused to
be seized, property of A for the debt of B, when such property
was out of A's possession, and there appeared reason to believe
it was B's. Vindictive damages are such as are given against a
defendant, who, in addition to the trespass, has been guilty of
acts of outrage and wrong which cannot well be measured by a
compensation in money; as, for example, where the defendant went
to A's house, and with insult and outrage seized upon A's
property, for a debt due by B, and carried it away, leaving A's
family in distress. Sedgw. on Dam. 39; 2 Greenl. Ev. §253; 1
GIllis. 483; 12 Conn. 580; 2 M. & S. 77; 4 S. & R. 19; 5
Watts, 375; 5 Watts & S. 524; 1 P. S. R. 190, 197.
10. In cases of loss of which have been insured from maritime
dangers, when an adjustment is made, the damages are settled by
valuing the property, not according to prime cost, but at the
price at which it may be sold at the time of settlling the
average. Marsh. Inst. B. 1, c. 14, s. 2, p. 621. See Adjustment;
Price.
DAMAGES, EXCESSIVE. Such damages as are unreasonably great, and
not warranted by law.
2. The damages are excessive in the following cases: 1. When
they are gre-ater than is demanded by the writ and declaration. 6
Call 85; 7 Wend. 330. 2. When they are greater than is
authorized by the rules and principles of law, as in the case of
actions upon contracts, or for torts done to property, the value
of which may be ascertained by evidence. 4 Mass. 14; 5 Mass.
435; 6 Halst. 284.
3. But in actions for torts to the person or reputation of the
plaintiff, the damages will not be considered excessive unless
they are outrageous. 2 A. K. Marsh 365; Hard. 586; 3 Dana, 464;
2 Pick. 113; 7 Pick. 82; 9 John. 45; 10 John. 443; 4 Mass. 1;
9 Pick. 11; 2 Penn. 578.
4. When the damages are excessive, a new trial will be granted
on that ground.
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DAMAGES INADEQUATE. Such as are unreasonably low, and less than
is required by law.
2. Damages are inadequate, when the plaintiff sues for a breach
of contract, and the damages given are less than the amount
proved. 9 Pick. 11.
3. In actions for torts, the smallness of damages cannot be
considered by the court. 3 Bibb, 34. See 11 Mass. 150.
4. In a proper case, a new trial will be granted on the ground
of inadequate damages.
DAMAGES ON BILLS OF EXCHANGE, contracts. A penalty affixed by
law to the non-payment of a bill of exchange when it is not paid
at maturity, which the parties to it are obliged to pay to the
holder.
2. The discordant and shifting regulaaions on this subject
which have been enacted in the several states, render it almost
impossible to give a correct view of this subject. The drawer of
a bill of exchange may limit the amount of damages by making a
memorandum in the bill, that they shall be a definite sum; as,
for example, "In case of non-acceptance or non-payment,
reexchange and expenses not to exceed ___________ dollars. 1
Bouv. Inst. n. 1133. The following abstract of the laws of
several of the United States, will be acceptable to the
commercial lawyer.
3. - Alabama. 1. When drawn on a person in the United States.
By the Act of January 15, 1828, the damages on a protested bill
of exchange drawn on a person, either in this or any other of the
United States, are ten per cent. By the Act of December 21, 1832,
the damages on such bills drawn on any person in this state, or
upon any person payable in New Orleans, and purchased by the Bank
of Alabama or its branches, are five per cent.
4. - 2. Damages on protested bills drawn on on person out of
the United States are twenty per cent.
5. - Arkansus. 1. It is provided by the Act of February 28,
1838, s. 7, Ark. Rev. Stat. 150, that "every bill of exchange
expressed to be for value received, drawn or negotiated within
this state, payable after date, to order or bearer, which shall
be duly presented for acceptance or payment, and protested for
non-acceptance or non-payment, shall be subject to damages in the
following cases: first, if the bill have been drawn on any person
at any place within this state, at the rate of two per centum on
the principal sum specified in the bill; second, if the bill
shall be drawn on any person, and payable in any of the states of
Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri, or any point on the Ohio river,
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at the rate of four per centum on the principal sum in such bill
specified: third, if the bill shall have been drawn on auy
person, and payable at any place within the Iimits of the United
States, not hereinbefore expressed, at the rate of five per
centum on the principal sum specified in the bill: fourth, if the
bill shall have been drawn on any person, and payable at any
point or place beyond the limits of the United States, at the
rate of ten per centum on the sum specified in the bill.
6. - 2. And by the 8th section of the same act, if any bill of
exchange expressed to be for value received, and made payable to
order or bearer, shall be drawn on any person at any place within
this state, and accepted and protested for non-payment, there
shall be allowed and paid to the holder, by the acceptor, damages
in the following cases: first, if the bill be drawn by any person
at any place within this sate, at the rate of two per centum on
the principal sum therein specified: second, if the bill be drawn
at any place without this state, but within the limits of the
United States, at teh rate of six per centum on the sum therein
specified: third, if the bill be drawn on any person at any place
without the limites of the United Sates, at the rate of ten per
centum on the sum therein specified. And, by sect 9, in addition
to the damages allowed inthe two preceding sections to the holder
of any bill of exchange protested for non-payment or
nonacceptance, he shall be entitled to costs of protest, and
interest at the rate of ten per centum per annum, on the amount
specified in the bill, from the date of teh protest until the
amount of the bill shall be paid."
7. - Connecticut. 1. When drawn on another place in the United
States. When drawn upon persons in the city of New York, two per
cent. When in other parts of the state of New York, or the New
England states (other than this,) New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Delaware, maryland, Virginia, or the District of Columbia, three
per cent. When on persons in North or South Carolina, Georgia, or
Ohio, five per cent. On other states, territories or districts,
in the United States, eight per cent, on the principal sum in
each case, with interest on the amount of such sum, with the
damage after notice and demand. Stat. tit. 71, Notes and Bills,
413, 414. When drawn on persons residing in Connecticut no
damages are allowed.
8. - 2. When the bill is drawn on person out of the United
States, twenty per cent is said to be the amount which ought
reasonably to be allowed. Swift's Ev. 336. There is no statutory
provision on the subject.
9. - Delaware. If any person shall draw or endorse any bill of
exchange upon any person in Europe, or beyond seas, and the same
shall be returned back unpaid, with a legal protest, the drawer
there and all others concerned shall pay and discharge the
contents of the said bill, together with twenty per cent advance
f or the damage thereof; and so proportionably for a greater or
less sum, in the sam specie as the same bill was drawn, or
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current money of this government equivalent to that which was
first paid to the drawer or endorser.
10. - Georgia. 1. Bills on persons in the United States. First,
in the state. No damages are allonved on protested bills of
exchange drawn in the state, on a person in the state, except
bank bills, on which the damages are ten per cent for refusal to
pay in specie. 4 Laws of Geo. 75. Secondly, upon bills drawn or
negotiated in the state on persons out of the state, but within
the United States, five per cent, and interest. Act of 1823,
Prince's Dig. 454; 4 Laws of Geo. 212.
11. - 2. When drawn upon a person out of the United States, ten
per cent. damages and postage, protest and necessary expenses;
also the premium, if any, on the face of the bill; but if at a
discount, the discount must be deducted. Act of 1827, Prince's
Dig. 462; 4 Laws of Geo. 221.
12. - Indiana. 1. When drawn by a person in the state on
another person in Indiana, no damages are allowed.
13. - 2. When drawn on a person in another state, territory, or
district, five per cent. 3. When drawn on a person out of the
United States, ten percent. Rev. Code, c. 13, Feb. 17, 1838.
14. - Kentucky. 1. When drawn by a person in Kentucky on a
person in the state, or in any other state, territory, or
district of the United Stateg, no damages are allowed. See, Acts,
Sessions of 1820, p. 823.
15. - 2. When on a person in a foreign country, damages are
given at the rate of ten per cent. per ann. from the date of the
bill until paid, but not more than eighteen months interest to be
collected. 2 Litt. 101.
16. - Louisiana. The rate of damages to be allowed and paid
upon the usual protest for non-acceptance, or for non-payment of
bills of exchange, drawn or negotiated within this state in the
following cases, is as follows: on all bills of exchange drawn on
or payable in foreign countries, ten dollars upon the hundred
upon the principal sum specified in such bills; on all bills of
exchange, drawn on and payable in other states in the United
States, five dollars upon the hundred upon the principal sum
specified in such bill. Act of March 7, 1838, s. 1.
17. By the second section of the same act it is provided that
such damages shall be in lieu of interest, charge of protest, and
all other charges, incurred previous to the time of giving notice
of non-acceptance or non-payment; but the principal and damages
shall bear interest thereafter.
18. By section 3, it is enacted, that if the contents of such
bill be expressed in the money of account of the United States,
the amount of the principal and of the damages herein allowed for
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the non-acceptance or non-payment shall be ascertained and
determined, without any reference to the rate of exchange
existing between this state and the place on which such bill
shall have been drawn, at the time of the payment, on notice of
non-acceptance or non- payment.
19. - Maine. 1. When drawn payable in the United States. The
damages in addition to the interest are as follows: if for one
hundred dollars or more, and drawn, accepted, or endorsed in the
state, at a place, seventy-five miles distant from the place
where drawn, one per cent.; if, for any sum drawn, accepted, and
endorsed in this state, and payable in New Hampshire, Vermont,
Connecticut, Rhode Island, or New York, three per cent; if
payable in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland,
Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia, or the District of Columbia,
six per cent.; if payable in any other state, nine per cent.
Rev. St. tit. 10 c. 115, §§110, 111.
20. - 2. Out of the United States, no statutory provision. It
is the usage to allow the holder of the bill the money for which
it was drawn, reduced to the currency of the state, at par, and
also the charges of protest with American interest upon those
sums from the time when the bill should have been paid and the
further sum of one-tenth of the money for which the bill was
drawn, with interest upon it from the time payment of the
dishonored bill was demanded of the drawer. But nothing has been
allowed for re-exchange, whether it is below or above par. Per
Parsons, Ch. J. 6 Mass. 157, 161 see 6 Mass. 162.
21. Maryland. 1. No damages are allowed when the bill is drawn
in the state on another person in Maryland.
22. - 2. When it is drawn on any "person, company, or society,
or corporation in any other of the United States," eight per
cent. damages on the amount of the bill are allowed, and an
amount to purchase another bill, at the current exchange, and
interest and losses of protest.
24. - 3. If the bill be drawn on a "foreign country," fifteen
per cent. damages are allowed, and the expense of purchasing a
new bill as above, besides interest and costs of protest. See Act
of 1785, c. 88.
25. - Michigan. 1. When a bill is drawn in the state on a
person in the state, no damages are allowed.
26. - 2. When drawn or endorsed within the state and payable
out of it, within the United States, the rule is as follows: in
addition to the contents of the bill, with interest and costs, if
payable within the states of Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Ohio,
and New York, three per cent. on the contents of the bill if
payable within the states of Missouri, Kentucky, Maine, New
Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New
Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, or the
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District of Columbia, five per centum; if payable elsewhere in
the United States, out of Michigan, ten per cent. Rev. St. 156,
S. 10.
27. - 3. When the bill is drawn within this state, and payable
out of the United States, the party liable must pay the same at
the current rate of exchange at the time of demand of payment,
and damages at the rate of five per cent. on the contents
thereof, together with interest on the said contents, which must
be computed, from the date of the protest, and are in full of all
damages and charges and expenses. Rev. Stat. 156, s. 9.
28. - Mississippi. 1. When drawn on a person in the state, five
per cent. damages are allowed. How. & Hutch. 376, ch. 35, s. 20,
L. 1827; How. Rep. 3. 195.
29. - 2. When drawn on a person in another state or territory,
no damages are given. Id. 3. When drawn on a person out of the
United States, ten per cent. damages are given, and all charges
incideutal thereto, with lawful interest. How. & Hutch. 376, ch.
35, s. 19, L. 1837.
30. - Missouri. 1. When drawn on a person within the state,
four per cent. damages on the sum specified in the bill are
given. Rev. Code, 1835, §8, cl. 1, p. 120.
31. - 2. When on another state or territory, ten per cent. Rev.
Code, 1835, §8, cl. 2, p. 120. 3. When on a person out of the
Unted States, twenty per cent. Rev. Code, 1835, §8, cl. 3, p.
120.
32. - New York. By the Revised Statutes, Laws of N. Y. sess.
42, ch. 34, it is provided that upon bills drawn or negotiated
within the state upon any person, at any place within the six
states east of New York, or in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio,
Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, or the District of Columbia, the
damages to be allowed and paid upon the usual protest for
non-acceptance or non-payment, to the holder of the bill, as
purchase thereof, or of some interest therin, for a valuable
consideration, shall be three per cent. upon the principal sum
specified in the bill; and upon any person at any place within
the states of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky,
and Tennessee, five percent; and upon any person in any other
state or territory of the United States, or at any other place
on, or adjacent to, this continent, and north of the equator, or
in any British or foreign possessions in the West Indies, or
elsewhere in the Western Atlantic Ocean, or in Europe, ten per
cent. The damages are to be in lieu of interest, charges of
protest, and all other charges incurred previous to, and at the
time of, giving notice of non-acceptance or non-payment. But the
holder will be entitled to demand and recover interest upon the
aggregate amount of the principal sum specified in the bill, and
the damages from time of notice of the protest for
non-acceptance, or notice of a demand and protest for
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non-payment. If the contents of the bill be expressed in the
money of account of the United States, the amount due thereon,
and the damages allowed for the non-payment, are to be
ascertained and determined, without reference to the rate of
exchange existing between New York and the place on which the
bill is drawn. But if the contents of the bills be expressed in
the money of account or currency of any foreign. country, then
the amount due, exclusive of the damages, is to be ascertained
and determined by the rate of exchange, or the value of such
foreign currency, at the time of the demand of payment.
33. - Pennsylvania. The Act of March 30, 1821, entitled an act
concerning bills of exchange, enacts, that, §1, "whenever any
bill of exchange hereafter be drawn and endorsed within this
commonwealth, upon any person or persons, or body corporate, of,
or in any other state, territory, or place, shall be returned
unpaid with a legal protest, the person or persons to whom the
same shall or may be payable, shall be entitled to recover and
receive of and from the drawer or drawers, or the endorser or
endorsers of such bill of exchange, the damages hereinafter
specified, over and above the principal sum for which such bill
of exchange shall have been drawn, and the charges of protest,
together with lawful interest on the amount of such principal
sum, damages and charges of protest, from the time at which
notice of said protest shall have been given, and the payment of
said principal sum and damages, and charges of protest demanded;
that is to say, if such bill shall have been drawn upon any
person or persons, or body corporate, of, or in any of the United
States or territories thereof, excepting the state of Louisiana,
five per cent. upon such principal sum; if upon any person or
persons, or body corporate, of, or in Louisiana, or of, or in any
other state or place in North America, or the islands thereof,
excepting the northwest coast of America and Mexico, or of, or in
any of the West India or Bahama Islands, ten per cent. upon such
principal sum; if upon any person or persons, or body corporate,
of, or in the island of Madeira, the Canaries, the Azores, the
Cape de Verde Islands, the Spanish Main, or Mexico, fifteen per
cent. upon such principal sum; if upon any person or persons, or
body corporate, of, or in any state or place in Europe, or any of
the island's thereof, twenty per cent. upon such principal sum;
if upon any person or persons, or body corporate, of, or in any
other part of the world, twenty-five per cent. upon such
principal sum.
34. - §2. "The damages, which, by this act, are to be recovered
upon any bill of exchange, shall be in lieu of interest and all
other charges, except the charges of protest, to the time when
notice of the protest and demand of psyment shall have been given
and made, aforesaid; and the amount of such bill and of the
damages payable thereon, as specified in this act, shall be
ascertained and determined by the rate, of exchange, or value of
the money or currency mentioned in such bill, at the time of
notice of protest and demand of payment as before mentioned."
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35. - Tennessee. 1. On a bill drawn or endorsed within the
state upon any person or persons, or body corporate, of, or in,
any other state, territory, or place, which shall be returned
unpaid, with a legal protest, the holder shall be entitled to the
damages hereinafter specified, over and above the principal sum
for which such bill of exchange shall have been drawn, and the
charge of protest, together with lawful interest on the amount of
such principal sum, damages, and charges of protest, from the
time at which notice of such protest shall have been given, and
the payment of said principal sum, damages, and charges of
protest demanded; that is to say, if such bill shall have been
drawn on any person or persons, or body corporate, of, or in any
of these United States, or the territories thereof, three per
cent. upon such principal sum: if upon any other person or
persons, or body corporate, of, or in, any other state or place
in North America, bordering upon the Gulf of Mexico, or of, or
in, any of the West India Islands, fifteen per cent. upon such
principal sum; if upon any person or persons, or body corporate,
of, or in, any other part of the world, twenty per ceut. upon
such principal sum.
36. - 2. The damages which, by this act, are to be recovered
upon any bill of exchange, shall be in lieu of interest and all
other charges, except charges of protest, to the time when notice
of the protest and demand of payment shall have been given and
made as aforresaid. Carr. & Nich. Comp. 125; Act of 1827, c. 14.
DAMAGES, DOUBLE or TREBLE, practice. In cases where a statute
gives a party double or treble damages, the jury are to find
single damages, and the court to enhance them, according to the
statute Bro. Ab. Damages, pl. 70; 2 Inst. 416; 1 Wils. 126; 1
Mass. 155. In Sayer on Damages, p. 244, it is said, the jury may
assess the statute damages and it would seem from some of the
modern cases, that either the jury or the court may assess. Say.
R. 214; 1 Gallis. 29.
DAMAGES, GENERAL, torts. General damages are such as the law
implies to have accrued from the act of a tort-feasor. To call a
man a thief, or commit an assault and battery upon his person,
are examples of this kind. In the first case the law presumes
that calling a man a thief must be injurious to him, with showing
that it is so. Sir W. Jones, 196; 1 Saund. 243, b. n. 5; and in
the latter case, the law imples that his person has been more or
less deteriorated, and that the injured party is not required to
specify what inury he has sustained, nor to prove it. Ham. N. P.
40; 1 Chit. Pl. 386; 2 L.R. 76; 4 Bouv. Inst. n. 3584.
DAMAGES, LAYING, pleading. In personal and mixed actions, (but
not in penal actions, for obvious reason,) the declaration must
allege, in conclusion, that the injury is to the damage of the
plaintiff; and must specify the amount of damages. Com. Dig.
Pleader, C 84; 10 Rep. 116, b.
2. In personal actions there is a distinction between actions
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that sound in damages, and those that do not; but in either of
these cases, it is equally the practice to lay damages. There is,
however, this difference: that, in the former case, damages are
the main object of the suit, and are, therefore, always laid high
enough to cover the whole demand; but in the latter, the
liquidated debt, or the chattel demanded, being the main object,
damages are claimed in respect of the detention only, of such
debt or chattel; and are, therefore, usually laid at a small
sum. The plaintiff cannot recover greater damages than he has
laid in theconclusion of his declaration. Com. Dig. Pleader, C
84; 10 Rep. 117, a, b; Vin. Ab. Damages, R.
3. In real actions, no damages are to be laid, because, in
these, the demand is specially for the land withheld, and damages
are in no degree the object of the suit. Steph. Pl. 426; 1 Chit.
Pl. 397 to 400.
DAMAGES, LIQUIDATED, contracts. When the parties to a contract
stipulate for the payment of a certain su, as a satisfaction
fixed and agreed upon by them, for the not doing of certain
things particularly mentioned in the agreement, the sum so fixed
upon is called liquidated damages. (q.v.) It differ from a
penalty, becasue the latter is a forfeiture from which the
defaulting party can be relieved. An agreement for liquidated
damages can only be when there is an engagement for the
performance of certain acts, the not doing of which would be an
injury to one of the parties; or to guard against the
performance of acts which, if done, would also be injurious. In
such cases an estimate of the damages may be made by a jury, or
by a previous agreement between the parties, who may foresee the
consequences of a breach of the engagement, and stipulate
accordingly. 1 H. Bl. 232; and vide 2 Bos. & Pul. 335, 350-355;
2 Bro. P. C. 431; 4 Burr, 2225; 2 T. R. 32. The civil law
appears to agree with these principles. lnst. 3, 16, 7; Toull.
liv. 3, n. 809; Civil Code of Louis. art. 1928, n. 5; Code
Civil, 1152, 1153.
2. It is to be observed, that the sum fixed upon will be
considered as liquidated damages, or a penalty, according to the
intent of the parties, and the more use of the words - "penalty,"
&c "forfeiture," or "liquidated damages," will not be regarded is
at all decisive of the question, if the instrument discloses,
upon the whole, a different intent. 2 Story, Eq. §1318; 6 B.& C.
224; 6 Bing. 141; 6 Iredell, 186; 3 Shepl. 273; 2 Ala. 425;
8 Misso. 467.
3. Rules have been adopted to ascertain whether such sum so
agreed upon shall be considered a penalty or liquidated damages,
which will be here enumerated by considering, first, those cases
where it has been considered as a penalty - and, secondly, where
it has been considered as liquidated damages.
4. - 1. It has been treated as penalty, 1st. where the parties
in the agreement have expressly declared the sum intended as a
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forfeiture or a penalty, and no other intent can be collected
from the instrument. 2 B. & P, 340, 350, 630; 1 McMullan, 106;
2 Ala. 425; 5 Metc. 61; 1 H. Bl. 227; 1 Campb. 78; 7 Wheat.
14; 1 Pick. 451; 4 Pick. 179; 3 Johns. Cas. 297. 2d. Where it
is doubtful whether it was intended as a penalty or not, and a
certain debt or damages, less than the penalty, is made payable
on the face of the instrument. 3 C. & P. 240; 6 Humph. 186. 3d.
Where the agreement was made, evidently, for the attainment of
another objeet, to which the sum specified is wholly collateral.
11 Mass. 76; 15 Mass. 488; 1 Bro. C. C. 418. 4th. Where the
agreement contains several matters, of different degrees of
importance, and yet the sum named is payable for the breach of
any, even the least. 6 Bing. 141; 5 Bing. N. C. 390; 7 Scott,
364; sed vide, 7 John. 72; 15 John. 200. 5th. Where the
contract is not under seal, and the damages are capable of being
certainly known and estimated. 2 B. & Al. 704; 6 B. & C. 216; 1
M. & Malk. 41; 4 Dall. 150; 5 Cowen, 144.
5. - 2. The sum agreed upon has been considered as liquidated
damages, 1st. Where the damages are uncertain, and are not
capable of being ascertained by any satisfactory and known rule.
2 T. R. 32; 1 Alc. & Nap. 389; 2 Burr, 2225; 10 Ves. 429; 3
M. & W. 545; 8 Mass. 223; 3 C. & P. 240; 7 Cowen 307; 4 Wend.
468. 2d. Where, from the tenor of the agreement, or from the
nature of the case, it appears that the parties have ascertained
the amount of damages by fair calculation and adjustment. 2
Story, Eq. Juris. §1318; 10 Mass. 459; 7 John. 72; 15 John.
200; 1 Bing. 302; 7 Conn. 291; 13 Wend. 507; 2 Greenl. Ev.
§259; 11 N. H. Rep. 234; 6 Blackf. 206; 26 Wend. 630; 17
Wend. 447; 22 Wend. 201; 7 Metc. 583; 2 Ala. 425; 2 Shepl.
250.
Vide, generally, 7 Vin. Ab. 247; 16 Vin. Ab. 58; 2 W. Bl.
Rep. 1190;. Coop. Just. 606; 1 Chit. Pr. 872; 2 Atk. 194;
Finch. 117; Prec. in Ch. 102; 2 Bro. P. C. 436; Fonbl. 151, 2,
note; Chit. Contr. 836; 11 N. Hamp. Rep. 234.
DAMAGES, SPECIAL, torts. Special damages are such as are in
fact sustained, and are not implied by law; these are either
superadded to general damages, arising from an act injurious in
itself, as when some particular loss arises. from the uttering of
slanderous words, actionable in themselves, or are such as arise
from an act indifferent and not actionable in itself, but
injurious only in its consequences, as when the words become
actionable only by reason of special damage ensuing. To
constitute special damage the legal and natural consequence must
arise from the tort, and not be a mere wrongful act of a third
person, or a remote consequence. 1 Camp. 58; Ham. N. P. 40; 1
Chit. Pl. 385, 6.
DAMAGES, SPECIAL, pleading. As distinguished from the gist of
the action, signify that special damage which is stated to result
from the gist; as, if a plaintiff in an action of trespass for
breaking his close, entering his house, and tossing his goods
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about, were to state that by means of the damage done to his
house, he was obliged to seek lodging elsewhere.
2. Sometimes the special damage is said to constitute the gist
of the action itself; for example, in an action wherein the
plaintiff declares for slanderous words, which of themselves are
not a sufficient ground or foundation for the suit, if any
particular damage result to the plaintiff from the speaking of
them, that damage is properly said to be the gist of the action.
3. But whether special damage be the gist of the action, or
only collatercal to it, it must be particularly stated in the
declaration, as the plaintiff will not otherwise be permitted to
go into evidence of it at the trial, because the defendant cannot
also be prepared to answer it. Willes, 23. See Gist.
DAMAGES, UNLIQUIDATED. The unascertained amount which is due to
a person by another for an injury to the person, property, or
relative rights of the party injured. These damages, being
unknown, cannot be set off against the claim which the tort
feasor has against the party injured. 2 Dall. 237; S. C. 1
Yeates, 571; 10 Serg. & Rawle 14; 5 Serg. & Rawle 122.
DAMNIFICATION. That which causes a loss or damage to a society,
or to one who has indemnified another. For example, when a
society has entered into an obligation to pay the debt of the
principal, and the principal has become bound in a bond to
indemuify the surety, the latter has suffered a damnification the
moment he becomes liable to be sued for the debt of the principal
- and it has been held in an action brought by the surety, upon a
bond of indemnity, that the terror of suit, so that the surety
dare not go about his business, is a damnification. Ow. 19; 2
Chit. R. 487; 1 Saund. 116; 8 East, 593; Cary, 26.
2. A judgment fairly obtained against a party for a cause
against which another person is bound to indemnify him, with
timely notice to that person of the bringing of the action, is
admissible as evidence in an action brought against the guarantor
on the indemnity. 7 Cranch, 300, 322. See F. N. B. Warrantia
Chartae; Lib. Int. Index, Warrantia Chartae; 2 S. & R. 12, 13.
DAMNIFY. To cause damage, injury or loss.
DAMNOSA HAEREDITAS. A name given by Lord Kenyon to that species
of property of a bankrupt, which, so far from being valuable,
would be a charge to the creditors for example, a term of years,
where the rent would exceed the revenue.
2. The assignees are not bound to take such property, but they
must make their election, and, having once entered into
possession, they cannot afterwards abandon the property. 7 East,
R. 342; 3 Campb. 340.
DAMNUM ABSQUE INJURIA. A loss or damage without injury.
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2. There are cases when the act of one man may cause a damage
or loss to another, and for which the latter has no remedy; he
is then said to have received damnum absque injuria; as, for
example, if a man should set up a school in the neighborhood of
another school, and, by that means, deprive the former of its
patronage; or if a man should build a mill along side of
another, and consequently reduce his custom. 9 Pick. 59, 528.
3. Another instance may be given of the case where a man using
proper care and diligence, while excavating for a foundation,
injures the adjoining house, owing to the unsuitable materials
used in such house; here the injury is damnum absque injuria.
4. When a man slanders another by publishing the truth, the
person slandered is said to have sustained loss without injury.
Bac. Ab. Actions on the Case, C Dane's Ab. Index, h. t.
DAMNUM FATALE, civil law. Damages caused by a fortuitous event,
or inevitable accident; damages arising from the act of God.
Among these were included losses by shipwreck, lightning, or
other casualty; also losses by pirates or by vis major, by fire,
robbery, and burglary; but theft was not numbered among these
casualties.
2. In general, bailees are not liable for such damages. Story,
Bailm. p. 471.
DANE-LAGE, Eng. law. That system of laws which was maintained
in England while the Danes had possession of the country.
DANGERS OF THE SEA, mar. law. This phrase is sometimes put in
bills of lading, the master of the ship agreeing to deliver the
goods therein mentioned to the consignee, who is named, the
dangers of the sea excepted. Sometimes the phrase is "Perils of
the Sea." (q. v.) See 1 Brock. R. 187.
DARREIN. A corruption of the French word "dernier," the last.
It is sometimes used as, "darrein continuance," the last
continuance. When any matter has arisen in discharge of the
defendant in action, he may take advantage of it, provided he
pleads itpuis darrein continuance; for if he neglect to do so,
he waives his right. Vide article darrein continuance.
DARREIN SEISIN. The name of a plea to a writ of entry or a writ
of right. 3 Met. 175.
DATE. The designation or indication in an instrument of
writing, of the time, and usually of the time and place, when and
where it was made. When the place is mentioned in the date of a
deed, the law intends, unless the contrary appears, that it was
executed at the place of the date. Plowd. 7 b., 31 H. VI. This
word is derived from the Latin datum, because when deeds and
agreements were written in that language, immediately before the
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day, month and year in which they were made, was set down, it was
usual to put the word datum, given.
2. All writings ought to bear a date, and in some it is
indispensable in order to make them valid, as in policies of
insurance; but the date in these instruments is not inserted in
the body of the writing because as each subscription makes a
separate contract, each underwriter sets down the day, month and
year he makes his subscription. Marsh. Ins. 336.
3. Deeds, and other writings, when the date is an impossible
one, take effect from the time of deliver; the presumption of
law is, that the deed was dated on the day it bears date, unless,
as just mentioned, the time is impossible; for example, the 32d
day of January.
4. The proper way of dating, is to put the day, month, and year
of our Lord; the hour need not be mentioned, unless specially
required; an instance of which may be taken from the
Pennsylvania Act of the 16th June, 1836, sect. 40, which requires
the sheriff, on receiving a writ of fieri facias, or other writ
of execution, to endorse thereon the day of the month, the year,
and the hour of the day whereon he received the same.
5. In public documents, it is usual to give not only the day,
the month, and the year of our Lord, but also the year of the
United States, when issued by authority of the general
government; or of the commonwealth, when issued under its
authority. Vide, generally, Bac. Ab. Obligations, C; Com. Dig,
Fait, B 3; Cruise, Dig. tit, 32, c. 20, s. 1-6; 1 Burr. 60; 2
Rol. Ab. 27, 1. 22; 13 Vin. Ab. 34; Dane's Ab. lndex, h. t. See
Almanac.
DATION, civil law, contracts. The act of giving something. It
differs from donation, which is a gift; dation, on the contrary,
is giving something without any liberality; as, the giving of an
office.
2. Dation in payment, datio in solutionem, which was the giving
one thing in payment of another which was due, corresponds nearly
to the accord and satisfaction of the common law.
DATION EN PAIEMFNT, civil law. This term is used in Louisiana;
it signifies that, when instead of paying a sum of money due on a
pre-existing debt, the debtor gives and the creditor agrees to
receive a movable or immovable.
2. It is somewhat like the accord and satisfaction of the
common law. 16 Toull. n. 45 Poth. Vente, U. 601. Dation en
paiement resembles in some respects the contract of sale; dare
in solutum, est quasi vendere. There is, however, a very marked
difference between a sale and a dation en paiement. 1st. The
contract of sale is complete by the mere agreement of the parties
the dation en paiement requires a delivery of the thing given.
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2d. When the debtor pays a certain sum which he supposed he was
owing, and be discovers he did not owe so much, he may recover
back the excess, not so when property other than money has been
given in payment. 3d. He who has in good faith sold a thing of
which he believed himself to be the owner, is not precisely
required to transfer the property of it to the buyer and, while
he is not troubled in the possession of the thing, he cannot
pretend that the seller has not fulfilled his obligations. On the
contrary, the dation en paiement is good only when the debtor
transfers to the creditor the property in the thing which he has
agreed to take in, payment and if the thing thus delivered be the
property of another, it will not operate as a payment. Poth.
Vente, n. 602, 603, 604.
DATIVE. That which may be given or disposed of at will and
pleasure. It sometimes means that which is not cast upon the
party by the law, or by a testator, but which is given by the
magistrate; in this sense it is that tutorship is dative, when
the tutor is appointed by the malistrate. Lec. Elem. §239; Civ.
Code of L. art. 288, 1671.
DAUGHTER. An immediate female descendant. See Son.
DAUGHTER-IN-LAW. In Latin, nurus, is the wife of one's son.
DAY. A division of time. It is natural, and then it consists of
twenty-four hours, or the space of time which elapses while the
earth makes a complete revolution on its axis; or artificial,
which contains the time, from the rising until the setting of the
sun, and a short time before rising and after setting. Vide
Night; and Co. Lit. 135, a.
2. Days are sometimes calculated exclusively, as when an act
required that an appeal should be made within twenty days after a
decision. 3 Penna. 200; 3 B. & A. 581; 15 Serg. & Rawle, 43. In
general, if a thing is to be done within such a time after such a
fact, the day of the fact shall be taken inclusively. Hob. 139;
Doug. 463; 3 T. R. 623; Com. Dig. Temps, A; 3 East, 407.
3. The law, generally, rejects fractions of days, but in some
cases it takes notice of such parts. 2 B. & A. 586. Vide Date.
4. By the custom of some places, the word day's is understood
to be working days, and not including Sundays. 3 Espin. N. P. C.
121. Vide, generally, 2 Chit. Bl. 141, note 3; 1 Chit. Pr. 774,
775; 3 Chit. Pr. 110; Lill. Reg. h. t; 1 Rop. Leg. 518; 15
Vin. Ab. 554; Dig. 33, 1, 2; Dig. 50, 16, 2, 1; Id. 2, 12, 8;
and articles Hour; Month; Year.
DAY BOOK, mer. law. An account book, in which merchants and
others make entries of their daily transactions. This is
generally a book of original entries, and as such may be given in
evidence to prove the sale and delivery, of merchandise or of
work done.
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DAY RULE, or DAY WRIT, English practice. A rule or order of the
court, by which a prisoner on civil process, and not committed,
is enabled, in term time, to go out of the prison, and its rule
or bounds; a prisoner is enabled to quit the prison, for more or
less time, by three kinds of rules, namely: 1. The day-rule. 2.
The term-rule; and 3. The rules. See 9 East, R. 151.
DAYS IN BANK, Eng. practice. Days of appearance in the court of
common pleas, usually called bancum. They are at the distance of
about a week from each other, and are regulated by some festival
of the church. 8 Bl. Com. 277.
DAYS OF GRACE. Certain days after the time limited by the bill
or note, which the acceptor or drawer has a right to demand for
payment of the bill or note; these days were so called because
they were formerly gratuitously allowed, but now, by the custom
of merchants, sanctioned by decisions of courts of justice, they
are demandable of right. 6 Watts & Serg. 179. The number of these
in the United States is generally three. - Chitty on Bills, h. t.
But where the established usage of the where the instrument is
payable, or of the bank at which it is payable, or deposited for
collection, be to make the demand on the fourth or other day, the
parties to the note will be bound by such usage. 5 How. U. S.
Rep. 317; 1 Smith, Lead. Cas. 417. When the last day of grace
happens on the 4th of July; 2 Caines Cas. in Err. 195; or on
Sunday; 2 Caines' R. 343; 7 Wend. 460; the demand must be made
on the day previous. 13 John. 470; 7 Wend. 460; 12 Mass. 89; 6
Pick. 80; 2 Caines, 343: 2 McCord, 436. But see 2 Conn. 69. See
20 Wend. 205; 1 Metc. R. 43; 2 Cain. Cas. 195; 7 How. Miss. R.
129; 4 J. J. Marsh. 332.
2. In Louisiana, the days of grace are no obstacle to a set
off, the bill being due, for this purpose before the expiration
of those days. Louis. Code, art. 2206.
3. In France all days of grace, of favor, of usage, or of local
custom, for thne payment of bills of exchange, are abolished.
Code de Com. art. 185. See 8 Verm. 833; 2 Port. 286; 1 Conn.
329; 1 Pick. 401; 2 Pick. 125; 3 Pick. 414; 1 N. & M. 83.
DAYS OF THE WEEK. These are Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday,
Thursday, Friday, Saturday. See Week.
2. The court will take judicial notice of the days of the week
- for example, when a writ of inquiry was stated in the pleadings
to have been executed on the fifteenth of June, and, upon an
examination, it was found to be Sunday, the proceeding was held
to be defective. Forteso. 373; S. C. Str. 387.
DE. A preposition used in many Latin phrases - as, de bone
esse, de bonis non.
DE ARBITRATIONE FACTA, WRIT. In the ancient English law, when
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an action was brought for the same cause of action which had been
before settled by arbitration, this writ was brought. Wats. on
Arb. 256.
DE BENE ESSE, practice. A technical phrase applied to certain
proceedings which are deemed to be well done for the present, or
until an exception or other avoidance, that is, conditionally,
and in that meaning the phrase is usually accepted. For example,
a declaration is filed or delivered, special bail put in, witness
examined, &c. de bene esse, or conditionally; good for the
present.
2. When a judge has a doubt as to the propriety of finding a
verdict, h(, may direct the jury to find one de bene esse; which
verdict, if the court shall afterwards be of opinion it ought to
have been found, shall stand. Bac. Ab. Verdict, A. Vide 11 S. &
R. 84.
DE BONIS NON. This phrase is used in cases where the goods of a
deceased person have not all been administered. When an executor
or administrator has been appointed, and the estate is not fully
settled, and the executor or administrator is dead, has
absconded, or from any cause has been removed, a second
administrator is appointed to to perform the duty remaining to be
done, who is called an administrator de bonis non, an
administrator of the goods not administered and he becomes by the
appointment the only representative of the deceased. 11 Vin. Ab.
111; 2 P. Wms. 340; Com. Dig. Administration, B I; 1 Root's
11. 425. And it seems that though the estate has been
distributed, an administrator de nonis non may be appointed, if
debts remain unsatisfied. 1 Root's R. 174.
DE BONIS PROPRIIS. Of his own goods. When an executor or
administrator has been guilty of a devastavit, (q. v.) he is
responsible for the loss which the estate has sustained, de bonis
propriis. He may also subject himself to the payment of a debt of
the deceased, de bonis propriis, by his false plea, when sued in
a representative as, if he plead plene administravit, and it be
found against him, or a release to himself, when false. In this
latter case the judgment is de bonis testatoris si, et si non de
bonis propriis. 1 Saund. 336 b, n. 10 Bac. Ab. Executor, B 8.
DE CONTUMACE CAPIENDO. The name of a writ issued for the arrest
of a defendant who is in contempt of the ecclesiastical court. 1
Nev. & Per. 680, 685, 689; 5 Dowl. 213, 646.
DE DOMO REPARANDA. The name of an ancient common law writ, by
which one tenant in common might compel his co-tenant to concur
in the expense of repairing the property held in common. 8 B. &
C. 269; 1 Tho. Co. Litt. 216, note 17, and p. 787.
DE DONIS, STATUTE. The name of an English statute passed the 13
Edwd. I. c. 1, the real design of which was to introduce
perpetuities, and to strengthen the power of the barons. 6 Co. 40
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a; Co. Litt. 21; Bac. Ab. Estates in tail, in prin.
DE FACTO, i. e. in deed. A term used to denote a thing actually
done; a president of the United States de facto is one in the
exercise of the executive power, and is distinguished from one,
who being legally entitled to such power is ejected from it; the
latter would be a president de jure. An officer de facto is
frequently considered as an officer de jure, and his official
acts are of equal validity. 10 S. & R. 250; 4 Binn. R. 371; 11
S. & R. 411, 414; Coxe, 318; 9 Mass. 231; 10 Mass. 290; 15
Mass. 180; 5 Pick. 487.
DE HOMINE REPLEGIANDO. The name of a writ which is used to
replevy a man out of prison, or out of the custody of a private
person. See Homine replegiando;
Writ de homine replegiando.
DE INJURIA, pleading. The name of a replication in an action
for a tort, that the defendant committed the trespasses or
crrievances of his own wrong, without the cause by,him in his
plea alleged.
2. The import of this replication is to insist that the
defendant committed the act complained of, from a motive and
impulse altogether different from that insisted on by the plea.
For example, if the defendant has justified a battery under a
writ of capias, having averred, as he must do, that the arrest
was made by virtue of the writ; the plaintiff may rely de
injuria sua propria absque tali causa, that the defendant did the
act of his own wrong, without the cause by him alleged. This
replication, then, has the effect of denying the alleged, motive
contained in the plea, and to insist that the defendant acted
from another, which was unlawful, and not in, consequence of the
one insisted upon in his plea. Steph. Pl. 186; 2 Chit. Pl.
523,.642; Hamm. N. P. 120, 121; Arch. Civ. Pl. 264; Com. Dig.
Pleader, F 19.
3. The form of this replication is, "precludi non, because he
says that the said defendant at the same time when, &c., of his
own wrong, and without the cause by him in his said second plea
alleged, committed the said trespass in the introductory part of
that plea, in manner and form as the said plaintiff hath above in
his said declaration complained against the said defendant, and
this the said plaintiff prays, may be inquired of by the
country," &c. This is the uniform conclusion of such a
replication. 1 Chit. Pl. 585.
4. The replication de injuria is only allowed when an excuse is
offered for personal injuries. 1 B. & P. 76; 5 Johns. R. 112; 4
Johns. 150; 12 Johns. 491. Vide 7 Vin. Ab. 503; 3 Saund. 295,
note; 1 Lilly's Reg. 587.
5. In England, where the extent of the general issues has been
confined in actions on contracts, and special pleas have become
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common in assumpsit, it has become desirable, that the plaintiff,
who hss but one replication, should put in issue the several
numerous allegations which the special pleas were found to
contain; for, unless he could do this, he would labor under the
hardship of being frequently compelled to admit the greater part
of an entirely false story. It became, therefore, important to
ascertain whether de injuria could not be replied to cases of
this description and, after numerous cases which were presented
for adjudication, it was finally settled that de injuria may be
replied in assumpsit, when the plea consists of matters of
excuse. 3 C. M. &,R. 65; 2 Bing. N. C. 579 4 Dowl. 647.
6. The improper use of de injuria is ground of general
demurrer. 2 Lev. 65; 4 Tyrw. 771. But if the defendant do not
demur, the objection will not avail after verdict. Hob. 76: Sir
T. Raym. 50.
7. De injuria puts in issue the whole of the defence contained
in the plea. 5 B. & A. 420; 11 East, 451; 10 Bing. 157. But if
the plea state some authority in law, which, prima facie, would
be a justification of the act complained of, the plaintiff will
not be allowed under the plea of de injuria to show an abuse of
that authority so as to convert the defendant into a tort feasor
ab initio. 1 Bing. 317; 1 Bing. N. S. 387. See 1 Smith's L. C.
53 to 61; 8 Co. 66.
DE JUDAISMO, STATUTUM. The name of a statute passed in the
reign of Edw. I., which enacted severe and absurd penalties
against the Jews. Barr. on Stat. 197.
2. The Jews were exceedingly oppressed during the middle ages
throughout Christendom, and, are so still in some countries. In
France, a Jew was a serf, and his person and goods belonged to
the baron on whose demesnes he lived. He could not change his
domicil without permission of the baron, who could pursue him as
a fugitive even on the domains of the king. Like an article of
commerce, he might be lent or hired for a time, or mortgaged. If
he became a Christian, his conversion was considered a larceny
of the lord, and his property and goods were confiscated. They
were allowed to utter their prayers only in a low voice and
without chanting. They were not allowed to appear in public
without some badge or mark of distinction. Christians were
forbidden to employ Jews of either sex as domestics, physicians
or surgeons. Admission to the bar was forbidden to Jews. They
were obliged to appear in court in person, when they demanded
justice for a wrong done them, and it was deemed disgraceful to
an advocate to undertake the cause of a Jew. If a Jew appeared in
court against a Christian, he was obliged to swear by the ten
names of God, and invoke a thousand imprecations against himself,
if he spoke not the truth. Sexual intercourse between a Christian
man and a Jewess was deemed a crime against nature, and was
punishable with death by burning. Quia est rem habere cum cane,
rem habere a Christiano cum Judaea quae CANIS reputatur - sic
comburi debet. 1 Fournel, Hist. des Avocats, 108, 110. See
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Merlin, Repert. au mot Juifs.
3. - In the fifth book of the Decretals, it is provided, that
if a Jew have a servant that desireth to be a Christian, the Jew
shall be compelled to sell him to a Christian for twelve pence
that it shall not be lawful for them to take any Christian to be
their servant that they may repair their old synagogues, but not
build new - that it shall not be lawful for them to open their
doors, or windows on good Friday; that their wives neither have
Christian nurses, nor themselves be nurses to Christian women -
that they wear different apparel from the Christians, whereby
they may be known, &c See Ridley's View of the Civ. and Eccl Law,
part 1, chap. 5, sect. 7 and Madox Hist. of the Exchequer, Index,
as to their condition in England.
DE JURE, by right. Vide De facto.
DE LUNATICO INQUIRENDO. The name of a writ directed to the
sheriff, directing him to inquire by good and lawful men whether
the party charged is, a lunatic or not. See 4 Rawle, 234; 1
Whart. 52; 5 Halst. 217; 6 Wend. 497.
DE MEDIETATE LINGUAE. Of half tongue. Vide Medietas linguae.
DE MELIORIBUS DAMNIS. Of the better damages. When a plaintiff
has sued several defendants, and the damages have been assessed
severally against each, he has the choice of selecting the best,
as he cannot recover the whole. This is doue by making, an
election de melioribus damnis.
DE MERCATORIBUS. This is the name of a statute passed in the 11
Edw. I.; it is usually called the statute of Acton Burnell De
Mercatoribus. It was passed in consequence of the complaints of
foreign merchants, who could not recover the claims, because the
lands of the debtors could not be sold for their debts. It
enacted that the chattels and devisable burgages of the debtor
might be sold for the payment of their debts. Cruise, Dig. t. 14,
s. 6.
D.E NOVO. Anew. afresh. When a judgment upon an issue in part
is reversed on error, for some mistake made by the court, in the
course of the trial, a venire de novo is awarded in order that
the case may again be submitted to the jury.
DE NOVI OPERIS NUNCIATIONE, Civil law. Where a thiug is
intended to be done against another man's right, the party
aggrieved may have in many cases, according to the civilians, an
interdict or injunctIion, to hinder that which is intended to his
prejudice: as where one buildeth an house contrary to the usual
and received form of building to the injury of his neighbor,
there lieth an injunction de novi operis nunciatione, which being
served, the offender is either to desist from his work or to put
in sureties that he shall pull it down, if he do not in a short
time avow, i. e. show, the lawfulness thereof.
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Ridley's Civ. and Eccl. Law, part 1, chap 1, sect. 8.
DE ODIO ET ATIA. These words sisignify "from hatred and ill
will." When a person was committed on a charge of a crime, from
such a motive, he could sue the writ de otio et atia, and procure
his liberty on giving bail. The object is now obtained by a writ
of habeas corpus. Vide Writ de odio et atia.
DE PARTITIONE FACIENDA. The name of a writ for making
partition. Vide Partition.
DE PROPRIETATE PROBANDA, Eng. Practice. The name of a writ
which issues in a case of replevin when the defendant claims
property in the chattels replevied, and the sheriff makes a
return accordingly. The writ directs the sheriff to summon an
inquest to determine on the validity of the claim, and, if they
find for the defendant, the sheriff merely returns their finding.
The plaintiff is not concluded by such finding, he may come into
the court above and traverse it. Hamm. N. P. 456.
DE QUOTA LITIS. The name of a part or contract, in the civil
law, by which one who has a claim difficult to recover, agrees
with another to give a part for the purpose of obtaining his
services to recover the rest. 1 Duv. n. 201.
2. Whenever such an agreement amounts to champerty, it is void
by law. 5 Monr. 416; 5 John. Ch. 44.
3. Attorneys cannot lawfully make a bargain with their clients
to receive for their compensation, a part of the thing sued for;
in New York, 2 Caines, 147; Ohio, 1 Ham. 132; Alabama, 755;
and some other states - but in some of the states such contracts
are not unlawful.
DE REPARATIONE FACIENDA. The name of a writ which lies by one
tenant in common against the other, to cause him to aid in
repairing the common propert. 8 B. & C. 269.
DE RETORNO HABENDO The name of a writ issued after a judgment
has been given in replevin, that the defendant should have a
return of the goods replevied. See 3 Bouv. Inst. n. 3376.
DE SON TORT. Of his own wrong. This term is usually applied to
a person who, having no right to meddle with the affairs or
estate of a deceased person, yet undertakes to do. so, by acting
as executor of the deceased. Vide Executor de son tort.
DE SON TORT DEMESNE, Of his own wrong, pleading. The name of a
replication in an action for a wrong or injury. When the
defendant pleads a matter merely in excuse of an injury to the
person or reputation of another, the plaintiff may reply de son
tort demesne sans tiel cause; that it was the defendant's own
wrong without such cause. Vide the articles, De Injuria, and
Without, and also 8 Co. 69 a; Bro. h. t.; Com. Dig. Pleader, F
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18.
DE UNA PARTE. A deed de una parte, is one where only one party
grants, gives, or binds himself to do.a thing to another. It
differs from a deed inter partes. (q. v.) 2 Bouv. Inst. n. 2001.
DE WARRANTIA DIEI, WRIT, Eng. law. Where a man is required to
appear on a certain day in person, and before that day the king
certifies that the party is in the king's service, he may sue
this writ, commanding the justices not to record his default for
that day for the cause before mentioned. F. N. B. 36.
DEACON, Eccl. law. A minister or servant in the church whose
office, in some churches, is to assist the priest in divine
service, and the distribution of the sacrament.
DEAD Something which has no life; figuratively, something of
no value.
DEAD BODY, crim. law. A corpse.
2. To take up a dead body without lawful authority, even for
the purposes of dissection, is a misdemeanor, for which the
offender may be indicted at common law. 1 Russ. on Cr. 414; 1
Dowl. & R. 13; Russ. & Ry. 366, ii. b; 2 Chit. Cr. Law, 35.
This offence is punished by statute in New Hampshire, Laws of N.
H. 339, 340 in Vermont, Laws of Vermont, 368 .c. 361; in
Massachusetts, stat. 1830, c. 51; 8 Pick. 370; 11 Pick. 350;
in New York, 2 Rev. Stat. 688. Vide 1 Russ. 414, n. A.
3. The preventing a dead body from being buried, is also an
indictable offence. 2 T. R. 734; 4 East, 460; 1 Russ. on Cr.
415 and 416, note A.
4. To inter a dead body found in a river, it seems, would
render the offender liable to an indictment for a misdemeanor,
unless he first sent for the coroner. 1 Kenyon's R. 250.
DEAD-BORN, descent, persons. Children dead-born are considered,
in law, as if they had never been conceived, so that no one can
claim a title, by descent, through such dead-born child. This is
the doctrine of the civil law. Dig. 50, 16, 129. Non nasci, et
natum mori, pare, sunt. Mortuus exitus, non est exitus. Civil
Code of Louis. art. 28. A child in ventre sa mere is considered
in being, only when it is for its advantage, and not for the
benefit of a third person. The rule in the common law is,
probably, the same, that a dead-born child is to be considered as
if he had never been conceived or born in other words, it is
presumed he never had life. it being a maxim of the common law,
that mortuus exitus non est exitus. Co. Litt. 29 b. See 2 Paige,
R. 35; Domat, liv. prel. t. 2, s. 1, n. 4, 6; 4 Ves. 334.
DEAD FREIGHT, contracts. When the charterer of a vessel has
shipped part of the goods on board, and is not ready to ship the
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remainder, the master, unless restrained by his special contract,
may take other goods on board, and the amount which is not
supplied, required to complete the cargo, is called dead freight.
2. The dead freight is to be calculated according to the actual
capacity of the vessel. 3 Chit. Com. Law; 399 Stark. 450.
DEAD MAN'S PART, English law. By the custom of London, when a
deceased freeman of the city left a widow and children, after
deducting what was calledthe widow's chamber, (q.v.) his personal
property was divided into three parts; one of which belonged to
the widow, another tot he children, and the third to the
administrator. When there was only a widow, or only children, in
either case they respectively took one moiety, and the
administrator the other; when there was neither widow nor child,
the administrator took the whole for his own use and this portion
was called the "dead man's part."
By statute of 1 Jac. 2, c. 17, this was changed, and the dead
man's part is declared to be subject to the statute of
distribution. 2 Bl. Com. 518. See Bac. Ab. Customs of London, D
4.
DEAD LETTERS. Those which remain in the post-office, uncalled
for. By the Act of March 8, 1825, 3 Story. L. U. S. 1993, it is
enacted, by §26, "That the postmasters shall, respectively,
publish, at the expiration of every three months, or oftener,
when the postmaster general shall so direct, in one of the
newspapers published at, or nearest, the place of his residence,
for three successive weeks, a list of all the letters remaining
in their respective offices; or instead thereof, shall make out
a number of such lists, and cause them to be posted at such
public places, in their vicinity, as shall appear to them best
adapted for the information of the parties concerned; and, at
the expiration of the next three months, shall send such of the
said letters as then remain on hand, as dead letters, to the
general post office where the same shall be opened and inspected;
and if any valuable papers, or matters of consequence, shall be
found therein, it shall be the duty of the postmaster general to
return such letter to the writer thereof, or cause a descriptive
list thereof to be inserted in one of the newspapers published at
the place most convenient to the supposed residence of the owner,
if within the United States; and such letter, and the contents,
shall be preserved, to be delivered to the person to whom the
same shall be addressed, upon payment of the postage, and the
expense of publication. And if such letter contain money, the
postmaster general may appropriate it to the use of the
department, keeping an account thereof, and the amount shall be
paid by the department to the claimant as soon as he shall be
found."
3. And by the Act of July 2, 1836, 4 Sharsaw. Cont. of Story,
L. U. S. 2474, it is enacted by §35 that advertisements of
letters remaining in the post-offices, may, under the direction
of the postmaster general, be made in more than one newspaper:
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provided, that the whole cost of advertising shall not exceed
four cents for each letter.
DEAD-PLEDGE. A mortgage of lands or goods - mortuum vadium.
DEAF AND DUMB. No definition is requisite, as the words are
sufficiently known. A person deaf and dumb is doli capax but with
such persons who have not been educated, and who cannot
communicate, their ideas in writing, a difficulty sometimes
arises on the trial.
2. A case occurred of a woman, deaf and dumb, who was charged
with a crime.
She was brought to the bar, and the indictment was then read to
her, and the question, in the usual form, was put, guilty or not
guilty ? The counsel for the prisoner then rose, and stated that
he could not allow his client to plead to the indictment, until
it was explained to her that she was at liberty to plead guilty
or not guilty. This attempted to be done, but was found
impossible, and she was discharged from the bar "simpliciter."
3. A person, deaf and dumb, may be examined as a witness,
provided he can be sworn, that is, if he is capable of
understanding the terms of the oath, and assents to it and if,
after he is sworn, he can convey his ideas, with or without an
interpreter, to the court and jury. Phil., Ev. 14.
DEAF, DUMB, AND BLIND. A man born deaf, dumb, and blind, is
considered an idiot. (q. v.) 1 Bl. Com. 304; F. N. B. 233; 2
Bouv. Inst. n. 2111.
DEALINGS. Traffic, trade; the transaction of business between
two or more persons.
2. The English statute 6 Geo. IV. c. 16, s. 81, declares all
dealings with a bankrupt, within a certain time immediately
before his bankruptcy, to be void. It has been held, under this
statute, that payments were included under the term "dealings."
M. & M. 137; 3 Car. & P. 85; S. C. 14 Eng. C. L. R. 219.
DEAN, eccl. law. An ecelesiastictl officer, who derives his
name from the fact that he presides over ten canons, or,
prebondaries, at least. There are several kinds of deans, namely:
1. Deans of chapters. 2. Deans of peculiars. 3. Rural deans. 4.
Deans in the colleges. 5. Honorary deans. 6. Deans of provinces.
DEATH, med. jur., crim. law, evidence. The cessation of life.
2. It is either natural, as when it happens in the usual
course, without any violence; or violent, when it is caused
either by the acts of the deceased, or those of others. Natural
death will not be here considered further than may be requisite
to illustrate the manner in which violent death occurs. A violent
death is either accidental or criminal; and the criminal act was
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committed by the deceased, or by another.
3. The subject will be considered, 1. As it relates to medical
jurisprudence; and, 2. With regard to its effects upon the
rights of persons.
4. - §1. It is the office of medical jurisprudence, by the
light and information which it can bestow, to aid in the
detection of crimes against the persons of others, in order to
subject them to the punishment which is awarded by the criminal
law. Medical men are very frequently called upon to make
examinations of the bodies of persons. who have been found dead,
for the purpose of ascertaining the causes of their death. When
it is recollected that the honor, the fortune, and even the life
of the citizen, as well as the distribution of impartial justice,
frequently depend on these examinations, one cannot but be struck
at the responsibility which rests upon such medical men,
particularly when the numerous qualities which are indispensably
requisite to form a correct judgment, are considered. In order to
form a - correct opinion, the physician must be not only skilled
in his art, but he must have made such examinations his special
study. A man may be an enlightened physician, and yet he may find
it exceedingly difficult to resolve, properly, the grave and
almost always complicated questions which arise in cases of this
kind. Judiciary annals, unfortunately, afford but too many
examples of the fatal mistakes made by physicians, and others,
when considering cases of violent deaths.
5. In the examination of bodies of persons who have come to a
violent death, every precaution should be taken to ascertain the
situation of the place where the body was found; as to whether
the ground appears to have been disturbed from its natural
condition; whether there are any marks of footsteps, their size,
their number, the direction to which they lead, and whence they
came -whether any traces of blood or hair can be found - and
whether any, and what weapons or instruments, which could have
caused death, are found in the vicinity; and these instruments
should be carefully preserved so that they may be identified. A
case or two may here be mentioned, to show the importance of
examining the ground in order to ascertain the facts. Mr.
Jeffries was murdered at Walthamstow, in England, in 1751, by his
niece and servant. The perpetrators were suspected from the
single circumstance that the dew on the ground surrounding the
house had not been disturbed on the morning of the murder. Mr.
Taylor, of Hornsey, was murdered in December, 1818, and his body
thrown into the river. It was evident he, had not gone into the
river willingly, as the hands were found clenched and contained
grass, which, in the struggle, he had torn from the bank. The
marks of footsteps, particularly in the snow, bave been found,
not unfrequently, to correspond with the shoes or feet of
suspected persons, and led to their detection. Paris, Med. Jur.
vol. iii. p. 38, 41.
6. In the survey of the body the following rules should be
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observed: 1. It should be as thoroughly examined as possible
without changing its position or that of any of the limbs; this
is particularly desirable when, from appearances, the death has
been caused by a wound, because by moving it, the altitude of the
extremities may be altered, or the state of a fracture or
luxation changed; for the internal parts vary in their position
with one another, according to the general position of the body.
When it is requisite to remove it, it should be done with great
caution. 2. The clothes should be removed, as far as necessary,
and it should be noted what compresses or bandages (if any) are
applied to particular parts, and to what extent. 3. The color of
the skin, the temperature of the body, the rigidity or
flexibility of the extremities, the state of the eyes, and of the
sphincter muscles, noting at the same time whatever swellings,
ecchymosis, or livid, black, or yellow spots, wounds, ulcer,
contusion, fracture, or luxation may be present. The fluids from
the nose, mouth, ears, sexual organs, &c., should be examined;
and, when the deceased is a female, it may be proper to examine
the sexual organs with care, in order to ascertain whether before
death she was ravished or not. 1 Briand, Med. Leg. 2eme partio,
ch. 1, art. 3, n. 5, p. 318. 4. The clothes of the deceased
should be carefully examined, and if parts are torn or defaced,
this fact should be noted. A list should also be made of the
articles found on the body, and of their state or condition, as
whether the purse of the deceased had been opened; whether he
had any money, &c. 5. The state of the body as to decomposition
should be, particularly stated, as by this it may sometimes be
ascertalued when the death took place; experience proves that in
general after the expiration of fourteen days After death,
decomposition has so far advanced, that identity cannot be
ascertained, excepting in some strongly developed peculiarity;
but in a drowned body, adipocire is not produced until five or
six weeks after death but this depends upon circumstance's, and
varies according to climate, seasun, &c. It is exceedingly
important, however to keep this fact in view in some judicial
inquiries relative to the time of death. 1 Chit. Med. Jur. 443. A
memorandom should be made of all the facts as they are
ascertained when possible, it should be made on the ground, but
when this cannot be done, as when chemical experiments are to be
made, or the body is to be dissected, they should be made in the
place where these operations are performed. 1 Beck's Med. Jur. 5;
Dr. Gordon Smith, 505; Ryan's Med. Jur. 145; Dr. Male's Elem.
of Judicial and For. Med. 101; 3 Paris & Fonbl. Med. Jur. 23 to
25; Vilanova Y Manes, Materia Criminal Forense, Obs. 11, cap. 7,
n. 7; Trebuchet, Medecine Legale, 12, et seq; 1 Briand, Med.
Leg.
2eme partie, ch. 1, art. 5. Vide article Circumstances.
7. - §2. In examining the law as to the effect which death has
upon the rights of others, it will be proper to consider, 1. What
is the presumption of life or death. 2. The effects of a man's
death.
8. - 1. It is a general rule, that persons who are proved to
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have been living, will be presumed to be alive till the contrary
is proved and when the issue is upon the death of a person, the
proof of the fact lies upon the party who asserts the death. 2
East, 312; 2 Rolle's R. 461. But when a person has been absent
for a long time, unheard from, the law will presume him to be
dead. It has been adjudged, that after twenty-seven years 3 Bro.
C. C. 510; twenty years in another case; sixteen years; 5 Ves.
458; fourteen years; 3 Serg. & Rawle, 390 twelve years; 18
John. R. 141; seven years; 6 East, 80, 85; and even five years
Finchs R. 419; the presumption of death arises. It seems that
even seven years has been agreed as the time when death may in
general be presumed. 1 Phil. Ev. 159. See 24 Wend. R. 221; 4
Whart. R. 173. By the civil law, if any woman marry again without
certain intelligence of the death of her hushand, how longsoever
otherwise her hushand be absent from her, both she and he who
married her shall be punished as adulterers. Authentics, 8th
Coll.; Ridley's View of the Civ. and Ecc. Law, 82.
9. The survivorship of two or more is to be proved by facts,
and not by any settled Iegal rule, or prescribed presumption. 5
B. Adolp. 91; 27 E. C. L. R. 45; Cro. Eliz. 503 Bac. Ab.
Execution D; 2 Phillim. 261; 1 Mer. R. 308; 3 Hagg. Eccl. R.
748; But see 1 Yo. & Coll. C. N. 121; 1 Curt. R. 405, 406, 429.
In the following cases, no presumption of survivor-ship was held
to arise; where two men, the father and son, were hanged about
the same time, and one was seen to struggle a little longer than
the other; Cor. Eliz. 503; in the case of General Stanwix, who
perished at sea in the same vessel with his daughter; 1 Bl. R.
610; and in the case of Taylor and his wife, who also perished
by being wrecked at sea with her, to whom he had bequeathed the
principal part of his fortune. 2 Phillim. R. 261; S. C. 1 Eng.
Eccl. R. 250. Vide Fearne on Rem. iv.; Poth. Obl. by Evans, vol.
ii., p. 345; 1 Beck's Med. Jur. 487 to 502. The Code Civil of
Fance has provided for most, perhaps all possible cases, art.
720, 721 and 722. The provisions have been transcribed in the
Civil Code of Louisiana, in these words:
10. Art. 930. If several persons respectively entitled to
inherit from one another, happen to perish in the same event,
such as a wreck, a battle, or a conflagration, without any
possibility of ascertaining who died first, the presumption of
survivorship is determined by the circumstances of the fact.
11. Art. 931. lu defect of the circumstances of the fact, the
determination must be guided by the probabilities resulting from
the strength, ages, and-difference of sex, according to the
following rules.
12. Art. 932. If those who have perished together were under
the age of fifteen years, the eldest shall be presumed to have
survived. If both were of the age of sixty-years, the youngest
shall be presumed to have survived. If some were under fifteen
years, and some above sixty, the first shall be presumed to have
survived.
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13. Art. 933. If those who perished together, were above the
age of fifteen years, and under sixty, the male must be presumed
to have survived, where there was an equality of age, or a
difference of less than one year. If they were of the same sex,
the presumption of survivorship, by which the succession becomes
open in the order of nature, must be admitted; thus the younger
must be presumed to have survived the elder.
14. - 2. The death of a man, as to its effects on others, may
be considered with regard, 1. To his contracts. 2. Torts
committed by or against him. 3. The disposition of his estate;
and, 4. To the liability or discharge of his bail.
15. - 1st. The contracts of a deceased person are in general
not affected by his death, and his executors or administrators
are required to fulfil his engagements, and may enforce those in
his favor. But to this general rule there are some exceptions;
some contracts are either by the terms employed in making them,
or by implication of law, to continue only during the life of the
contracting party. Among these may be mentioned the following
cases: 1. The contract of marriage.- 2. The partnership of
individuals. The contract of partnership is dissolved by death,
unless otherwise provided for. Indeed the partnership will be
dissolved by the death of one or more of the partners, and its
effects upon the other partners or third persons will be the
same, whether they have notice of the death or otherwise. 3 Mer.
R. 593; Story, Partn. §319, 336, 343; Colly. Partn. 71; 2
Bell's Com. 639, 5th ed.; 3 Kent, Com. 56, 4th ed.; Gow,
Partn. 351; 1 Molloy, R. 465; 15 Ves. 218; S. C. 2 Russ. R.
325.; 3. Contracts which are altogether personal; as, for
example, where the deceased had agreed to accompany the other
party to the contract, on a journey, or to serve another; Poth.
Ob. P. 3, c. 7, a. 3, §2 and 3; or to instruct an apprentice.
Bac. Ab. Executor, P; 1 Burn's Just. 82, 3; Hamm. on Part. 157;
1 Rawle's R. 61.
16. The death of either a constituent or of an attorney puts an
end to the power of attorney. To recall such power two things are
necessary; 1st. The will or intention to recall; and, 2d.
Special notice or general authority. Death is a sufficient recall
of such power, answering both requisites. Either it is, according
to one hypothesis, the intended termination of the authority or,
according to the other, the cessation of that will, the existence
of which is requisite to the existence of the attorney's power;
while on either supposition, the event is, or is supposed to be,
notorious. But exceptions are admitted where the death is
unknown, and the authority, in the meanwhile, is in action, and
relied on. 3 T. R. 215; Poth; Ob. n. 448.
17. - 2d. In general, when the tort feasor or the party who has
received the injury dies, the action for the recovery of the
damages dies with him; but when the deceased might have waived
the tort, and maintained assumpsit arainst the defendant, his
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personal representative may do the same thing. See the article
Actio Personalis moriturcum persona, where this subject is more
fully examined. When a person accused and guilty of crime dies
before trial, no proceedings can be had against his
representatives or his estate.
18. - 3d. By the death of a person seised of real estate, or
possessed of personal property at the time of his death; his
property vests when he has made his will, as he has directed by
that instrument; but when he dies intestate, his real estate
vests in his heirs at law by descent, and his personal property,
whether in possession or in action, belongs to his executors or
administrators.
19. - 4th. The death of a defendant discharges the special
bail. Tidd, Pr. 243; but when he dies after the return of the
ca. sa., and before it is filed, the bail are fixed. 6 T. R. 284;
5 Binn. R. 332, 338; 2 Mass. R. 485; 1 N. H. Rep. 172; 12
Wheat. 604; 4 John. R. 407; 3 McCord, R. 49; 4 Pick. R. 120;
4 N. H. Rep. 29.
20. Death is also divided into natural and civil.
21. Natural death is the cessation of life.
22. Civil death is the state of a person who, though possessing
natural life, has lost all his civil rights, and, as to them, is
considered as dead. A person convicted and attainted of felony,
and sentenced to the state prison for life, is, in the state of
New York, in consequence of the act of 29th of March, 1799, and
by virtue of the conviction and sentence of imprisonment for
life, to be considered as civilly dead. 6 Johns. C R. 118; 4
Johns. C. R. 228, 260; Laws of N. Y. Sess. 24, ch. 49, s. 29,
30, 31; 1 N. R. L. 157, 164; Co. Litt. 130, a; 3 Inst. 215; 1
Bl. Com. 132, 133; 4 Bl. Com. 332; 4 Vin. Ab. 152. See. Code
Civ. art. 22 a 25; 1 Toull. n. 280 and p. 254, 5, note; also,
pp. 243-5, n. 272; 1 Malleville's Discussion of the Code Civil,
45, 49, 51, 57. Biret, Vocab. au mot Effigie.
23. Death of a partner. The following effects follow the death
of a partner, namely: 1. The partnership is dissolved, unless
otherwise provided for by the articles of partnership. Gow's
Partn. 429. 2. The representatives of the deceased partner become
tenants in common with the survivor in all partnership effects in
possession. 3. Choses in action so far survive that the right to
reduce them into possession vests exclusively in the survivor. 4.
When recovered, the representatives of the deceased partner have,
in, equity, the same right of sharing and participating in them
that their testator or intestate would have had had he been
living. 5. It is the duty and the right of the surviving partner
to settle the affairs of the firm, for which he is not allowed
any compensation. 6. The surviving partner is alone to be sued at
law for debts of the firm, yet recourse can be had in equity
against the assets of the deceased debtor. Gow's Partn. 460. Vide
Bouvier's Law Dictionary : D1 : Page 30 of 120
Capital Crime; Dissolution; Firm; Partners; Partnership;
Punishment. See, generally, Bouv. Inst. Index, h. t.
DEATH BED, Scotch law. The incapacity to exercise the power of
disposing of one's property after being attacked with a mortal
disease.
2. It commences with the beginning of such disease.
3. There are two exceptions to this general rule, namely: 1. If
he survive for sixty days after the act or, 2. If he go to kirk
or market unattended. He is then said to be in legitima
potestate, or in liege poustie. 1 Bell's Com. 84, 85.
DEATH BED OR DYING DECLARATIONS. In cases of homicide, those
which are made in extremis, when the person making them is
conscious of his danger and has given up all hopes of recovery,
charging some other person or persons with the murder. See 1
Phil. Ev. 200; Stark. Ev. part 4, p 458; 15 Johns. R. 288; 1
Hawk's R. 442; 2 Hawk's R. 31; McNally's Ev. 174; Swift's Ev.
124.
2. These declarations, contrary to the general rule that,
hearsay is not evidence, are constantly received. The principle
of this exception is founded partly on the situation of the dying
person, which is considered to be as powerful over his
conscienceas the obligation of an oath, and partly on the
supposed absence of interest on the verge of the next world,
which dispenses with a necessity of a cross-examination. But
before such declarations can be ad-mitted in evidence against a
prisoner, it must be satisfactorily proved, that the deceased at
the time of making them was conscious of his danger and had given
up all hopes of recovery. 1 Phil. Ev. 215, 216; Stark. Ev. part
4, p. 460.
3. They are admissible, as such, only in cases of homicide,
where the death of the deceased is the subject of the charge, and
the circumstances of the death are the subject of the dying
declarations. 2 B. & C. 605; 15 John. 286: 4 C. & P. 233.Vide. 2
M. & Rob. 53.
4. The declarant must not have been incapable of a religious
sense of accountability to his Maker; for, if it appears that
such religious sense was wanting, whether it arose from
infidelity, imbecility or tender age, the declarations are alike
inadmissible. 1 Greenl. Ev. §157; 1 Phil. Ev. 289; Phil. & Ani.
Ev. 296; 2 Russ. on Cr. 688. See, in general, Bac. Abr.
Evidence, K; Addis. R. 832 East's P. C. 354, 356; 1 Stark. C.
522 2 Hayw. R. 31; 1 Hawk's R. 442; Swift's Ev. 124; Pothier,
by Evans, vol. 2, p. 293; Anth. N. P. 176, and note a; Str.
500.
DEATH'S PART, English law. That portion of the personal estate
of a deceased
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man which remained after his wife and children had received their
reasonable parts from his estate; which was, if he had both a
wife and child or children, one-third part; if a wife and no
child, or a child or children and no wife, one-half; if neither
wife nor child, he had the whole to dispose of by his last will
and testament; and if he made no will, the same was to go to his
ad-
ministrator. And within the city of London, and throughout the
province of York, in case of intestacy, the wife and children
were till lately entitled to their reasonable parts, and the
residue only was distributable by, the statute of distribution;
but by the 11 G. I. c. 18, s. 17, 18, the power of devising was
thrown generally open. Burn's L. Dict., See this dict. tit.
Legitime, and
Lex Falcidia.
DEBATE, legislation, practice. A contestation between two or
more persons, in which they take different sides of a question,
and maintain them, respectively, by facts and arguments; or it
is a discussion, in writing, of some contested point.
2. The debate should be conducted with fairness, candor and
decorum, and supported by facts and arguments founded in reason;
when, in addition, it is ornamented by learning, and decorated by
the powers of rhetoric, it becomes eloquent and persuasive. It is
essential that the power of debate should be free, in order to an
energetic discharge of his duty by the debator.
3. The Constitution of the United States, art. 1, s. 6,
provides, that for any speech or debate, in either bouse, the
senators and representatives shall not be questioned in any other
place.
4. It is a rule of the common law, that counsel may, in, the
discharge of professional duty, use strong epithets, however
derogatory to the character of the opponent, or his attorney, or
other agent or witness, in commenting on the facts of the case,
if pertinent to the cause, and stated in his instructions,
without any liability to any action for the supposed slander,
whether the thing stated were true or false. 1 B. & Ald. 232; 3
Dow's R. 273, 277, 279; 7 Bing. R. 459; S. C. 20 E. C. L. R.
198. Respectable and sensible counsel, however, will always
refrain from the indulgence of any unjust severity, both on their
own personal account, and because browheating a witness, or other
person, will injuriously affect their case in the eyes of a
respectable court and jury. 3 Chit. Pr. 887, 8.
DEBENTURE. A certificate given, in pursuance of law, by the
collector of a port of entry, for a certain sum, due by the
United States, payable at a time therein mentioned, to an
importer for drawhack of duties on merchandise imported and
exported by him, provided the duties arising on the importation
of the said merchandise shall have been discharged prior to the
time aforesaid. Vide Act of Congress of March 2, 1799, s. 80;
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Encyclop6die, h. t.; Dane's Ab. Index, h. t.
DEBET ET DETINET, pleading. He owes and detains. In an action
of.debt, the form of the writ is either in the debet and detinet,
that is, it states that the defendant owes and unjustly detains
the debt or thing in question, it is so brought between the
original contracting parties; or, it is in the detinet only;
that is, that the defendant unjustly detains from the plaintiff
the debt or thing for which the action is brought; this is the
form in in action by an executor, because the debt or duty is not
due to him, but it is unjustly detained from him. 1 Saund. 1.
2. There is one case in which the writ must be in the detinet
between the contracting parties. This is when the action is
instituted for the recovery of goods, as a horse, a ship, and the
like, the writ must be in the detinet, for it cannot be said a
man owes another a horse, or a ship, but only that he detains
them from him. 3 Bl. Com. 153, 4; 11 Vin. Ab. 32 1; Bac. Ab.
Debt, F; 1 Lilly's Reg. 543; Dane's Ab. h. t.
DEBIT, accounts, commerce. A term used in book-keeping, to
express the left-hand page of the ledger, to which are carried
all the articles supplied or paid on the subject of an account,
or that are charged to that account. It also signifies the
balance of an account.
DEBITUM IN PRAESENTI, SOLVENDUM IN FUTURO. A debt due at
present, to be paid in future. There is a difference between debt
payable now and one payable at a future time. On the former an
action may be brought, on the latter no action lies until it
becomes due. See Due; Owing; and 13 Pet. 494; 11 Mass. 493.
DEBT, contracts. A sum of money due by certain and express
agreement. 3 Bl. Com. 154. In a less technical sense, as in the
"act to regulate arbitrations and proceedings in courts of
justice" of Pennsylvania, passed the 21st of March, 1806, s. 5,
it means an claim for money. In a still more enlarged sense, it
denotes any kind of a just demand; as, the debts of a bankrupt.
4 S. & R. 506.
2. Debts arise or are proved by matter of record, as judgment
debts; by bonds or specialties; and by simple contracts, where
the quantity is fixed and specific, and does not depend upon any
future valuation to settle it. 3 Bl. Com. 154; 2 Hill. R. 220.
3. According to the civilians, debts are divided into active
and passive. By the former is meant what is due to us, by the
latter, what we owe. By liquid debt, they understand one, the
payment of which may be immediately enforced, and not one which
is due at a future time, or is subject to a condition; by
hypothecary debt is meant, one which is a lien over an estate and
a doubtful debt, is one the payment of which is uncertain. Clef
des Lois Rom. h. t.
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4. Debts are discharged in various ways, but principally by
payment. See Accord and Satisfaction; Bankruptcy; Confusion
Compensation; Delegation; -Defeasance; Discharge of a
contract; Extinction; Extinguishment; Former recovery; Lapse
of time; Novation; Payment; Release; Rescission; Set off.
5. In payment of debts, some are to be paid before others, in
cases of insolvent estates first, in consequence of the character
of the creditor, as debts due to the United States are generally
to be first paid; and secondly, in consequence of the nature of
the debt, as funeral expenses and servants' wages, which are
generally paid in preference to other debts. See Preference;
Privilege; Priority.
DEBT, remedies. The name of an action used for the recovery of
a debt eo nomine and in numero though damages are generally
awarded for the detention of the debt; these are, however, in
most instances, merely nominal. 1 H. Bl. 550; Bull. N. P. 167
Cowp. 588.
2. The subject will be considered with reference, 1. To the
kind of claim or
obligation on which this action may be maintained. 2. The form of
the declara-
tion. 3. The plea. 4. The judgment.
3. - §1. Debt is a more extensive remedy for the recovery of
money than assumpsit or covenant, for it lies to recover money
due upon legal liabilities, as, for money lent, paid, had and
received, due on an account stated; Com. Dig. Dett, A; for work
and labor, or for the price of goods, and a quantum valebant
thereon; Com. Dig. Dett, B Holt, 206; or upon simple contracts,
express or implied, whether verbal or written, or upon contracts
under seal, or of record, or by a common informer, whenever the
demand for a sum is certain, or is capable of being reduced to
certainty. Bull. N. P. 167. It also lies to recover money due on,
any specialty or contract under seal to pay money. Str. 1089;
Com. Dig. Dett, A 4; 1 T. R. 40. This action lies on a record,
or upon a judgment of a court of record; Gilb. Debt, 891; Salk.
109; 17 S. & R. 1; or upon a foreign judgment. 3 Shepl. 167; 3
Brev. 395. Debt is a frequent remedy on statutes, either at the
suit of the party grieved, or of a common informer. Com. Dig.
Action on Statute, E; Bac. Ab. Debt, A. See, generally, Bouv.
Inst. Index, h. t.; Com. Dig. h. t.; Dane's Ab. h. t.. Vin. Ab.
h. t.; Chit. Pl. 100 to 109; Selw. N. P. 553 to 682; Leigh's
N. P. Index, h. t. Debt also lies, in the detinet, for goods;
which action differs from detinue, because it is not essential in
this action, as in detinue, that the property in any specific
goods should be vested in the plaintiff, at the time the action
is brought; Dy. 24 b; and debt in the debet and detinet may be
maintained on an instru-
ment by which the defendant is bound to pay a sum of money lent,
which might have been discharged, on or before the day of
payment, in articles of merchandise. 4 Yerg. R. 171; see, Com.
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Dig. Dett, A 5; Bac. Ab. Debt, F; 3 Woodd. 103, 4; 1 Dall. R.
458.
4. - §2. When the action is on a simple contract, the
declaration must show the consideration of the contract,
precisely as in assumpsit; and it should state either a legal
liability or an express agrement, though not a promise to pay the
debt. 2 T. R. 28, 30. When the action is founded on a specialty
or record, no consideration need be shown, unless the performance
of the consideration constitutes a condition precedent, when
performance of such consideration must be averred. When the
action is founded on a deed, it must be declared upon, except in
the case of debt for rent. 1 New R. 104.
5. - §3. The plea to an action of debt is either general or
special. 1. The plea of general issue to debt on simple
contracts, or on statutes, or when the deed is only matter of
inducement, is nil debet. See Nil debet. In general, when the
action is on a specialty, the plea denying the existence of the
contract is non est factum; 2 Ld. Raym. 1500; to debt on
record, nul tiel record. 16 John. 55. Other matters must, in
general, be pleaded specially.
6.- §4. For the form of the judgment, see Judgment in debt. Vide
Remedy.
DEBTEE. One to whom a debt is due a creditor, as, debtee
executor. 3 Bl. Com. 18.
DEBTOR, contracts. One who owes a debt; he who may be
constrained to pay
what he owes.
2. A debtor is bound to pay his debt personally, and all the
estate he possesses or may acquire, is also liable for his debt.
3. Debtors are joint or several; joint, when they all equally
owe the debt in solido; in this case if a suit should be
necessary to recover the debt, all the debtors must be sued
together or, when some are dead, the survivors must be sued, but
each is bound for the whole debt, having a right to contribution
from the others; they are several, when each promises severally
to pay the whole debt; and obligations are generall binding on
both or all debtors jointly and severally. When they are
severally bound each may be sued separately, and on the payment
of debt by one, the others will be bound to contribution, where
all had participated in the money or property, which was the
cause of the debt.
4. Debtors are also principal and surety; the principal debtor
is bound as between him and his surety to pay the whole debt. and
if the surety pay it, he will be entitled to recover against the
principal. Vide Bouv. Inst. Index, h. t.; Vin. Ab. Creditor and
Debtor; Id. Debt; 8 Com. Dig. 288; Dig. 50, 16, 108 Id. 50,
16, 178, 3; Toull. liv. 2, n. 250.
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DECAPITATION, punishment. The punishment of putting a person to
death by taking off his head.
DECEDENT. In the acts of descent and distribution in
Pennsylvania, this word is frequently used for a deceased person,
testate or intestate.
DECEIT, tort. A fraudulent. misrepresentation or contrivance,
by which one man deceives another, who has no means of detecting
the fraud, to the injury and damage of the latter.
2. Fraud, or the intention to deceive, is the very essence of
this injury, for if the party misrepresenting was himiself
mistaken, no blame can attach to him. The representation must be
made malo animo, but whether or not the party is himself to gain
by it, is wholly immaterial.
3. Deceit may not only be by asserting a falsebood deliberately
to the injury of another as, that Paul is in flourishing
circumstances, whereas he is in truth insolvent; that Peter is
an honest man, when he knew him to be a, rogue; that property,
real or personal, possesses certain qualities, or belongs to the
vendor, whereas he knew these things to be false; but by any act
or demeanor which would naturally impress the mind of a careful
man with a mistaken belief.
4. Therefore, if one whose manufactures are of a superior
quality, distinguishes them by a particular mark, which facts are
known to Peter, and Paul counterfeits this work, and affixes them
to articles of the same description, but not made by such person,
and sells them to Peter as goods of such manufacture, this is a
deceit.
5. Again, the vendor having a knowledge of a defect in a
commodity which cannot be obvious to the buyer, does not disclose
it, or, if apparent, uses an artifice and conceals it, he has
been guilty of a fraudulent misrepresentation for there is an
implied condition in every contract that the parties to it act
upon equal terms, and the seller is presumed to have assured or
represented to the vendee that he is not aware of any secret
deficiencies by which the commodity is impaired, and that he has
no advantage which himself does not pos-
sess.
6. But in all these cases the party injured must have no means
of detecting the fraud, for if he has such means his ignorance
will not avail him in that case he becomes the willing dupe of
the other's artifice, and volenti non fit injuria. For example,
if a horse is sold wanting an eye, and the defect is visible to a
common observer, the purchaser cannot be said to be deceived,
for by inspection he might discover it, but if the blindness is
only discoverable by one experienced in such diseases, and the
vendee is an inexperienced person, it is a deceit, provided the
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seller knew of the
defect.
7. The remedy for a deceit, unless the right of action has been
suspended or discharged, is by an action of trespass on the case.
The old writ of deceit was brought for acknowledging a fine, or
the like, in another name, and this being a perversion of law to
an evil purpose, and a high contempt, the act was laid contra
pacem, and a fine imposed upon the offender. See Bro. Abr.
Disceit; Vin Abr. Disceit.
8. When two or more persons unite in a deceit upon another,
they may be indicted for a conspiracy. (q. v.) Vide, generally, 2
Bouv. Inst. n. 2321-29; Skin. 119; Sid. 375; 3 T. R. 52-65; 1
Lev. 247; 1 Strange, 583; D Roll. Abr. 106; 7 Barr, Rep. 296;
11 Serg. & R. 309, 310; Com. Dig. Action upon the case for a
deceit; Chancery, 3 F 1 and 2; 3 M 1; 3 N 1; 4 D 3; 4 H 4;
4 L 1; 4 O 2; Covin; Justices of the Peace, B 30; Pleader, 2
H; 1 Vin. Ab. 560; 8 Vin. Ab. 490; Doct. Pl. 51; Dane's Ab.
Index, h. t.; 1 Chit. Pr. 832 Ham. N. P. c. 2, s. 4; Ayl. Pand.
99 2 Day, 531; 12 Mass. 20; 3 Johns. 269; 6 Johns. 181; 2
Day, 205, 381; 4 Yeates, 522; 18 John. 395: 8 John. 23; 4
Bibb, 91; 1 N. & M. 197. Vide, also, articles Equality; Fraud;
Lie.
TO DECEIVE. To induce another either by words or actions, to
take that for true which is not so. Wolff, Inst. Nat. §356.
DECEM TALES, practice. In the English law this is a writ which
gives to the sheriff apponere decem tales; i. e. to appoint ten
such men for the supply of jurymen, when a sufficient number do
not appear to make up a full jury.
DECENNARY, Eng. law. A town or tithing, consisting originally
of ten families of freeholders. Ten tithings composed a hundred.
1 Bl. Com. 114.
DECIES TANTUM, Eng. law. The name of an obsolete writ which
formerly lay against a juror who had taken money for giving his
verdict; called so, because it was sued out to recover from him
ten times as much as he took.
DECMATION. The punishment of every tenth soldier by lot, was,
among the Romans, called decimation.
DECIME. A French coin, of the value of a tenth part of a franc,
or nearly two cents.
DECISION, practice. A judgment given by a competent tribunal.
The French lawyers call the opinions which they give on questions
propounded to them, decisions. Vide Inst. 1, 2, 8 Dig. 1, 2, 2.
DECLARANT. One who makes a declaration. Vide Declarationis.
DECLARATION, pleading. A declaration is a specification, in a
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methodical and logical form, of the circumstances which
constitute the plaintiff's cause of action. 1 Chit. Pl. 248; Co.
Litt. 17, a, 303, a; Bac. Abr. Pleas, B; Com. Dig. Pleader, C
7; Lawes on Pl. 35; Steph Pl. 36; 6 Serg. & Rawle, 28. In real
actions, it is most properly called the count; in a personal
one, the declaration. Steph. Pl. 36 Doct. Pl. 83; Lawes, Plead.
33; see P. N. B. 16, a, 60, d. The latter, however, is now the
general term; being that commonly used when referring to real
and personal actions without distinction. 3 Bouv. Inst. n. 2815.
2. The declaration in an action at law answers to the bill in
chancery, the libel of the civilians, and the allegation of the
ecclesiastical courts.
3. It may be considered with reference, 1st. To those general
requisites or qualities which govern the whole declaration; and
2d. To its form, particular parts, and requisites.
4. - 1. The general requisites or quali- ties of a declaration
are first, that it correspond with the process. But, according to
the present practice of the courts, oyer of the writ cannot be
craved; and a variance between the writ and declaration cannot
be pleaded in abatement. 1 Saund. 318; a.
5. - Secondly. The second general requisite of a declaration
is, that it contain a statement of all the facts necessary in
point of law, to sustain the action, and no more. Co. Litt. 303,
a; Plowd. 84, 122. See 2 Mass. 863; Cowp. 682; 6 East, R. 422
5 T. R. 623; Vin. Ab. Declarations.
6. - Thirdly. These circumstances must be stated with certainty
and truth. The certainty necessary in a declaration is, to a
certain intent in general, which should pervade the whole
declaration, and is particularly required in setting forth, 1st.
The parties; it must be stated with certainty who are the
parties to the suit, and therefore a declaration by or against "C
D and Company," not being a corporation, is insufficient. See
Com. Dig. Pleader, C I 8 1 Camp. R. 446 I T. R. 508; 3 Caines,
R. 170. 2d. The time; in personal actions the declaration must,
in general, state a time when every material or traversable fact
happened; and when a venue is necessary, time must also, be
mentioned. 5 T. R. 620; Com. Dig. Plead. C 19; Plowd. 24; 14
East, R. 390.; The precise time, however, is not material; 2
Dall. 346; 3 Johns. R. 43; 13 Johns. R. 253; unless it
constitutes a material part of the contract declared upon, or
whlere the date, &c., of a written contract or record, is
averred; 4 T. R. 590 10 Mod. 313 2 Camp. R. 307, 8, n.; or, in
ejectment, in which the demise
must be stated to have been made after the title of the lessor of
the plaintiff, and his right of entry, accrued. 2 East, R. 257;
1 Johns. Cas. 283. 3d. The Place. See Venue. 4th. Other
circumstances necessary to maintain the action.
7. - 2. The parts and particular requisites of a declaration
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are, first, the title of the court and term. See 1 Chit. Pl. 261,
et seq.
8. - Secondly. The venue. Immediately after tšhe title of the
declaration follows the statement in the margin of the venue, or
county in which the facts are alleged to have occurred, and in
which the cause is tried. See Venue.
9. - Thirdly. The commencement. What is termed the commencement
of the declaration follows the venue in the margin, and precedes
the more circumstantial statement of the cause of action. It
contains a statement, 1st. Of the names of the parties to the
suit, and if they sue or be sued in another right, or in a
political capacity, (as executors, assignees, qui lam, &c.) of
the character or right in respect of which they are parties to
the suit. 2d. Of the mode in which the defendant has been
brought into court; and, 3d. A brief recital of the form of
action to be proceeded in. 1 Saund. 318, Id. 111, 112; 6 T. R.
130.
10. Fourthly. The statement of the cause (if action, in which
all the requisites of certainty before mentioned must be
observed, necessarily varies, according to the circumstances of
each particular case, and the form of action, whether in
assumpsit, debt, covenant, detinue, case, trover, replevin or
trespass.
11. Fifthly. The several counts. A declaration may consist of
as many counts as the case requires, and the jury may assess
entire or distinct damages on. all the counts; 3 Wils. R. 185;
2 Bay, R. 206; and it is usual, particularly in actions of
assumpsit, debt on simple contract, and actions on the case, to
set forth the plaintiff's cause of action in various shapes in
different counts, so that if the plaintiff fail in proof of one
count, he may succeed in another. 3 Bl. Com. 295.
12. - Sixthly. The conclusion. In personal and mixed actions
the declaration should conclude to the damage of the plaintiff;
Com. Dig. Pleader, C 84; 10 Co. 116, b. 117, a.; unless in
scire facias and in penal actions at the suit of a common
informer.
13. - Seventhly. The profert and pledges. In an action at the
suit of an executor or administrator, immediately after the
conclusion to the damages, &c., and before the pledges, a profert
of the letters testamentary or letters of administration should
be made. Bac. Abr. Executor, C; Dougl. 6, in notes. At the end
of the declaration, it is usual to add the plaintiff is common
pledges to prosecute, John Doe and Richard Roe.
14. A declaration may be general or special; for example, in
debt or bond, a declaration counting on the penal part only, is
general; when it sets out both the penalty and the condition,
and assigns the breach, it is special. Gould on Pl. c. 4, §50.
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See, generally, Bouv. Inst. Index, h. t. 1 Chit. Pl. 248 to 402;
Lawes, Pl. Index) h. t.; Arch. Civ. Pl. -index, h. t.; Steph.
Pl. h. t.; Grab. Pr. h. t.; Com. Dig. Pleader, h. t.; Dane's
Ab. h. t.; United States Dig. Pleadings ii.
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. This is a state paper issued by
the congress of the United States of America, in the name and by
the authority of the people, on the fourth day of July, 17 76,
wherein are set forth:
2. - 1. Certain natural and unalienable rights of man; the
uses and purposes of governments the right of the people to
institute or to abolish them; the sufferings of the colonies,
and their right to withdraw from the tyranny of the king of Great
Britain.
3. -2. The various acts of tyranny of the British King.
4. - 3. The petitions for redress of these injuries, and the
refusal. to redress them; the recital of an appeal to the people
of "Great Britain, and of their being deaf to the voice of
justice and consanguinity.
5. - 4. An appeal to the Supreme Judge of the world for the
rectitude of the intentions of the representatives.
6. - 5. A declaration that the United Colonies are, and of
right ought to be, free and independent states; that they are
absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all
political connexion between them and the state of Great Britain,
is and ought to be dissolved.
7. - 6. A pledge by the representatives to each other, of their
lives, their fortunes, and their sacred honor.
8. The effect of this declaration was the establishment of the
government of the United States as free and independent) and
thenceforth the people of Great Britain have been held, as the
rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends.
DECLARATION OF lNTENTION. The act of an alien, who goes before
a court of record, and in a forma manner declares that it is,
bona fide, his intention to become a citizen of the United
States, and to renounce forever all allegiance and fidelity to
any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty, whereof he
may at the time be a citizen or subject. Act of Congress of April
14, 18O2, s. 1.
2. This declaration must, in usual cases, be made at least
three years before his admission. Id. But there are numerous
exceptions to this rule. See Naturalization.
DECLARATION OF TRUST. The act by which an individual
acknowledges that a
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property, the title of which he holds, does in fact belong to
another, for whose use he holds the same. The instrument in which
the acknowledgment is made, is also called a declaration of
trust; but such a declaration is not always in writing, though
it is highly proper it should be so. Will. on Trust, 49, note y;
Sudg. on Pow. 200. See Merl. Rep. Declaration au profit d'un
tiers.
DECLARATION OF WAR. An act of the national legislature, in
which a state of war is declared to exist between the United
States and some other nation.
2. This power is vested in congress by the constitution, art.
1, s. 8. There is no form or ceremony necessary, except the
passage of the act. A manifesto, stating the causes of the war,
is usually publishied, but war exists as soon as the act takes
effect. It was formerly usual to precede hostilities by a public
declaration communicated to the enemy, and to send a herald to
demand satisfaction. Potter, Antiquities of Greece, b. 3, c. 7;
Dig. 49, 15, 24. But that is not the practice of modern times. In
some countries, as England, the, power of declaring war is vested
in the king, but he has no power to raise men or money to carry
it on, which renders the right almost nugatory.
4. The public proclamation of the government of a state, by
which it declares itself to be at war with a foreign power, which
is named, and which forbids all and every one to aid or assist
the common enemy, is also called a declaration of war.
DECLARATIONS, evidence. The statements made by the parties to a
transaction, in relation to the same.
2. These declarations when proved are received in evidence, for
the purpose of illustrating the peculiar character and
circumstances of the transaction. Declarations are admitted to be
proved in a variety of cases.
3. - 1. In cases of rape, the fact that the woman made
declarations in relation to it, soon after the assault took
place, is evidence; but the particulars of what she said cannot
be heard. 2 Stark; N. P. C. 242; S. C. 3 E. C. L. R. 344. But
it is to be observed that these declarations can be used only to
corroborate her testimony, and cannot be received as independent
evidence; where, therefore, the prosecutrix, died, these
declarations could not be received. 9 C. & P. 420; S. C. 38 Eng.
C. L. R. 173; 9 C. & P. 471; S. C. 38 E. C. L. It. 188.
4. - 2. When more than one person is concerned in the
commission of a crime, as in cases of riots, conspiracies, and
the like, the declarations of either of the parties, made while
acting in the common design, are evidence against the whole; but
the declarations of one of the rioters or conspirators, made
after the accomplishment of their object, and when they no
longer acted together, are evidence only against the party making
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them. 2 Stark. Ev. 235 2
Russ. on Cr. 572 Rosc. Cr. Ev. 324; 1 Breese, Rep. 269.
5. In. civil cases the declarations of an agent, made while
acting for his principal, are admitted in evidence as explanatory
of his acts; but his confessions after he has ceased to, act,
are not evidence. 4. S. R. 321.
6. - 3. To prove a pedigree, the declarations of a deceased
member of the family are admissible. Vide Hearsay, and the cases
there cited.
7. - 4. The dying declarations of a man who has received a
mortal injury, as to the fact itself, and the party by whom it
was committed, are good evidence; but the party making them must
be under a full consciousness of approaching death. The
declarations of a boy between ten and eleven years of age, made
under a consciousness of approaching death, were received in
evidence on the trial of a person for killing him, as being
declarations in articulo mortis. 9 C. & P. 395; S. C. 38 E. C.
L. R. 168. Evidence of such declarations is admissible only when
the death of the deceased is the subject of the charge, and the
circumstances of the death the subject of the dying declarations.
2 B. & C. 605; S. C. 9 E. C. L. R. 196; 2 B. & C. 608; S. C. 9
E. C. L. R. 198; 1 John. Rep. 159; 15 John. R. 286; 7 John. R.
95 But see contra, 2 Car. Law Repos. 102. Vide Death bed, or
Dying declarations. 3 Bouv. Inst. n. 3071.
DECLARATORY. Something which explains, or ascertains what
before was un-
certain or doubtful; as a declaratory statute, which is one
passed to put an end to a doubt as to what the law is, and which
declares what it is, and what it has been. 1 Bl. Com. 86.
TO DECLARE. To make known or publish. By tho constitution of
the United States, congress have power to declare war. In this
sense the word, declare, signifies, not merely to make it known
that war exists, but also to make war and to carry it on. 4 Dall.
37; 1 Story, Const. §428; Rawle on the Const. 109. In pleading,
to declare, is the act of filing a declaration.
DECOCTION, med. jurisp. The operation of boiling certain
ingredients in a fluid, for the purpose of extracting the parts
soluble at that temperature. Decoction also means the product of
this operation.
2. In a case in which the indictment charged the prisoner with
having administered to a woman a decoction of a certain shrub
called savin, it appeared that the prisoner had administered an
infusion (q. v.) and not a decoction; the prisoner's counsel
insisted that he was entitled to an acquittal, on the ground that
the medicine was misdescribed, but it was held that infusion and
decoction are ejusdem generis, and that the variance was
immaterial. 3 Camp. R. 74, 75.
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DECONFES, canon law in France. Formerly those persons who died
without confession were so called; whether they refused to
confess or whether they were criminals to whom the sacrament was
refused. Droit Canon, par M. L'Abbe Andre. Dupin, Gloss. to
Loisel's Institutes, says, Le deconfes est celui qui meurt sans
confession et sans testament car l'un n'alloit point sans
l'autre. See Intestate.
DECORUM. Proper behaviour; good order.
2. Decorum is requisite in public places, in order to permit
all persons to enjoy their rights; for example, decorum is
indispensable in church, to enable those assembled, to worship.
If, therefore, a person were to disturb the congregation, it
would be lawful to put him out. The same might be done in case of
a funeral. 1 Mod. 168; 1 Lev. 196 2 Kebl. 124. But a request to
desist should be first made, unless, indeed," when the necessity
of the case would render such precaution impossible. In using
force to restore order and decorum, care must be taken to use no
more than is necessary; for any excess will render the party
using it guilty of an assault and battery. Vide Battery.
DECOY. A pond used for the breeding and maintenance of
water-fowl. 11 Mod. 74, 130; S. C. 3 Salk. 9; Holt, 14 11 East,
571.
DECREE, practice. The judgment or sentence of a court of
equity.
2. It is either interlocutory or final. The former is given on
some plea or issue arising in the cause, which does not decide
the main question; the latter settles the matter in dispute, and
a final decree has the same effect as a judgment at law. 2 Madd.
Ch. 462; 1 Chan. Cas. 27; 2 Vern. 89; 4 Bro. P. C. 287.; Vide
7r-Vin. Ab. 394; 7 Com. Dig. 445; 1 Supp. to Ves. Jr. 223 Bouv.
Inst. Index, h. t.
DECREE, legislation. In some countries as in France, some acts
of the legislature, or of the sovereign, which have the force of
law, are called decrees; as, the Berlin and Milan decrees.
DECREE ARBITRAL, Scotch law. A decree made by arbitrators
chosen by the parties; an award. 1 Bell's Com. 643.
DECREE OF REGISTRATION, Scotch law. A proceeding by which the
creditor has immediate execution; it is somewhat like a warrant
of attorney to confess judgment. 1 Bell's Com. B. 1, c. 1, p. 4.
DECRETAL ORDER. Chancery practice. An order made by the court
of chancery, upon a motion or petition, in the nature of a
decree. 2 Dan. Ch. Pr. 637.
DECRETALS. eccles. law. The decretals are canononical epistles,
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written by the pope alone, or by the pope and cardinals, at the
instance or suit of some one or more persons, for the ordering
and determining some matter in. controversy, and have the
authority of a law in themselves.
2. The decretals were published in three volumes. The first
volume was collected by Raymundus Barcinius, chaplain to Gregory
IX., about the year 1231, and published by him to be read in
schools, and used in the ecclesiastical courts. The second volume
is the work of Boniface VIII compiled about the year 1298, with
additions to and alterations of the ordinances of his
predecessors. The third volume is called the Clementines, because
made by Clement V., and was published by him in the council of
Vienna, about the year 1308. To these may be added the
Extravagantes of John XXII. and other bishops of Rome, which,
relatively to the others, are called Novelle Constitutiones.
Ridley's View, &c. 99, 100,; 1 Fournel, Hist. des Avocats,
194-5.
3. The false decretals were forged. in the names of the early
bishops of Rome, and first appeared about A. D. 845-850. The
author of them is not known. They are mentioned in a letter
written in the name of the council of Quiercy, by Charles the
Bald, to the bishops and lords. of France. See Van Espen Fleury,
Droit de Canon, by Andre.
DEDI, conveyancing. I have given. This word amounts to a
warranty in law, when it is in a deed; for example, if in a deed
it be said, I have given, &c., to A B, this is a warranty to him
and his heirs. Brooke, Abr. Guaranties, pl. 85. Yet the warranty
wrought by this word is a special warranty, and extendeth to the
heirs of the feoffee during the life of the donor only. Co. Litt.
884, b. Vide Concessi.
DEDICATION. Solemn appropriation. It may be expressed or
implied.
2. An express dedication of property to public use is made by a
direct appropriation of it to such use, and it will be enforced.
2 Peters, R. 566; 6 Hill, N. Y. Rep. 407.
3. But a dedication of property to public or pious uses may be
implied from the acts of the owner. A permission to the public
for the space of eight or even six years, to use a street without
bar or impediment, is evidence from which a dedication to the
public may be inferred. 2 Bouv. Inst. n. 1631; 11 East, R. 376;
12 Wheat. R. 585; 10 Pet. 662; 2 Watts, 23; 1 Whart. 469; 3
Verm, 279; 6 Verm. 365; 7 Ham. part 2, 135; 12 Wend. 172; 11
Ala. R. 63, 81; 1 Spencer, 86; 8 Miss. R. 448 5 Watts & S. 141;
Wright, 150; 6 Hill, 407 24 Pick. 71; 6 Pet. 431, 498 9
Port.,527; 3 Bing. 447; sed vide 5 Taunt. R . 125. Vide Street,
and the following authorities: 3 Kent, Com. 450; 5 Taunt. 125 5
Barn. & Ald. 454: 4 Barn. & Ald. 447; Math. Pres. 833. As to
what shall amount to a dedication of an invention to public use,
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see 1 Gallis. 482; 1 Paine's C. C. R. 345; 2. Pet. R. 1; 7
Pet. R. 292; 4 Mason, R. 1018. See Destination.
DEDIMUS, practice. The name of a writ to commission private.
persons to do some act in the place of a judge; as, to
administer an oath of office to a justice of the peace, to
examine witnesses, and the like. 4 Com. Dig. 319; 3 Com. Dig.
359; Dane's Ab. Index, h. t. Rey, in his Institutions
Judiciaires, de l'Angleterre, tom. 2, p. 214, exposes the
absurdity of the name given to this writ; he says it is
applicable to every writ which emanates from the same authority;
dedimus, we have given.
DEDIMUS POTESTATEM DE ATTORNO FACIENCDO. The name of a writ
which was
formerly issued by authority of the crown in England to authorize
an attorney to appear for a defendant.
2. By statute of Westminster 2, 13 Edw. I. c. 10, all persons
impleaded may make an attorney to sue for them in all pleas moved
by or against them, in the superior courts there enumerated. 3
Mann. & Gran. 184, note.
DEED, conveyancing, contracts. A writing or instrument, under
seal, containing some contract or agreement, and which has been
delivered by the parties. Co. Litt. 171; 2 Bl. Com. 295; Shep.
Touch. 50. This applies to all instruments in writing, under
seal, whether they relate to the conveyance of lands, or to any
other matter; a bond, a single bill, an agreement in writing, or
any other contract whatever, when reduced to writing, which
writing is sealed and delivered, is as much a deed as any
conveyance of land. 2 Serg. & Rawle, 504; 1 Mood. Cr, Cas. 57;
5 Dana, 365; 1 How. Miss. R. 154; 1 McMullan, 373. Signing is
not necessary at common law to make a deed. 2 Ev. Poth. 165; 11
Co. Rep. 278 6 S. & R. 311.
2. Deed, in its more confined sense, signifies a writing, by
which lands, tenements, and hereditaments are conveyed, which
writing is sealed and delivered by the parties.
3. The formal parts of a deed for the conveyance of land are,
1st. The premises, which contains all that precedes the habendum,
namely, the date, the names and descriptions of the parties, the
recitals, the consideration, the receipt of the same, the grant,
the full description of the thing granted, and the exceptions, if
any.
4. - 2d. The habendum, which states that estate or interest is
granted by the deed this is sometimes, done in the premises.
5. - 3d. The tenendum. This was formerly used to express the
tenure by which the estate granted was to be held; but now that
all freehold tenures have been converted into socage, the
tenendum is of no use and it is therefore joined to the habendum,
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under the formula to have and to hold.
6th. The redendum is that part of the deed by which the grantor
reserves something to himself, out of the thing granted, as a
rent, under the following formula, Yielding and paying.
7. - 5th. The conditions upon which the grant is made. Vide
Conditions.
8. - 6th. The warranty, is that part by which the grantor
warrants the title to the grantee. This is general when the
warrant is against all persons, or special, when it is only
against the grantor, his heirs, and those claiming under him. See
Warranty.
9. - 7th. The covenants, if any; these are inserted to oblige
the parties or one of them, to do something beneficial to, or to
abstain from something, which, if done, might be prejudicial to
the other.
10. - 8th. The conclusion, which mentions the execution and the
date, either expressly, or by reference to the beginning.
11. The circumstances necessarily attendant upon a valid deed,
are the following: 1. It must be written or printed on parchment
or paper. Litt. 229, a; 2 Bl. Com. 297. 2. There must be
sufficient parties. 3. A proper subject-matter which is the
object of the grant. 4. A. sufficient consideration. 5. An
agreement properly set forth. 6. It must be read, if desired. 7.
It must be signed and sealed. 8. It must be delivered. 9. And
attested by witnesses. 10. It should be properly acknowledged
before a competent officer.
11. It ought to be recorded.
12. A deed may be avoided, 1. By alterations made in it
subsequent to its execution, when made by the party himself,
whether they be material or immaterial, and by any material
alteration, made even by a stranger. Vide Erasure;
Interlineation.
2. By the disagreement of those parties whose concurrence is
necessary; for instance, in the case of a married woman by the
disagreement of her hushand. 3. By the judgment of a competent
tribunal.
13. According to Sir William Blackstone, 2 Com. 313, deeds may
be consi-
dered as (1), conveyanees at common law, original and derivative.
1st. The original are, 1. Feoffment. 2. Gift. 3. Grant. 4. Lease.
5. Exchange; and 6. Partition. 2d. Derivative, which are 7.
Release. 8. Confirmation. 9. Surrender. 10. Assignment 11.
Defeasance. (2). Conveyances which derive their force by virtue
of the statute of uses; namely, 12. Covenant to stand seised to
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uses. 13. Bargain and sale of lands. 14. Lease and release. 15.
Deed to lead and declare uses. 16. Deed of revocation of uses.
14. The deed of, bargain and sale, is the most usual in the
United States. Vide Bargain and Sale. Chancellor Kent is of
opinion that a deed would be perfectly competent in any part of
the United States, to convey the fee, if it was to the following
effect: "I, A, B, in consideration of one dollar to me paid, by C
D, do bargain and sell , (or in some of the states, grant) to C
D, and his heirs, (in New York, Virginia, and some other states,
the words, and his heirs may be omitted,) the lot of land,
(describing it,) witness my hand and seal," &c. 4 Kent, Com. 452.
Vide, generally, Bouv. Inst. Index, h. t.; Vin. Abr. Fait; Com.
Dig. Fait; Shep. Touch. ch. 4; Dane's Ab. Index, h. t.; 4
Cruise's Dig. passim.
15. Title deeds are considered as part of the inheritance and
pass to the heir as real estate. A tenant in tail is, therefore,
entitled to them; and chancery will, enable him to get
possession of them. 1 Bro. R. 206; 1 Ves. jr. 227;11 Ves. 277;
15 Ves. 173. See Hill. Ab. c. 25; 1 Bibb, R. 333: 3 Mass. 487;
5 Mass. 472.
16. The cancellation, surrender, or destruction of a deed of
conveyance, will not divest the estate which has passed by force
of it. 1 Johns. Ch. Rep. 417 2 Johns. Rep. 87. As to the effect
of a redelivery of a deed, see 2 Bl. Com. 308 2 H. Bl. 263, 264.
DEED POLL, contracts. A deed made by one party only is not
indented, but polled or shaved quite even, and is, for this
reason, called a deed poll, or single deed. Co. Litt. 299, a.
2. A deed poll is not, strictly speaking, an agreement between
two persons; but a declaration of some one particular person,
respecting an agreement made by him with some other person. For
example, a feoffment from A to B by deed poll, is not an
agreement between A and B, but rather a declaration by A
addressed to all mankind, informing them that he thereby gives
and enfeoffs B of certain land therein described.
3. It was formerly called charta de una parte, and, usually
began with these words, Sciant praesentes et futuri quod ego A,
&c.; and now begins, "Know all men by these presents, that I, A
B, have given, granted, and enfeoffed, and by these presents do
give, grant and enfeoff," &c. Cruise, Real Prop. tit. 32, c. 1,
s. 23.
DEFALCATION, practice, contracts. The reduction of the claim of
one of the contracting parties against the other, by deducting
from it a smaller claim due from the former to the latter.
2. The law operates this reduction , in certain cases, for, if
the parties die or are insolvent, the balance between them is the
only claim; but if they are solvent and alive, the defendant may
or may not defalcate at his choice. See Set off. For the
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etymology of this word, see Bracken. Law Misc. 186; 1 Rawle's R.
291; 3 Binn. R. 135.
3. Defalcation also signifies the act of a defaulter. The
bankrupt act of August 19, 1841, (now repealed), declares that a
person who owes debts which have been created in consequence of a
defalcation as a public officer, or as executor, administrator,
guardian or trustee, or while acting in any other fiduciary
capacity, shall not have the benefit of that law.
DEFAMATION, tort. The speaking slanderous words of a person so
as, de bona fama aliquid detrahere, to hurt his good fame. Vide
Slander.
2. In the United States, the remedy for defamation is by an
action on the case, where the words are slanderous.
3. In England, besides the remedy by action, proceedings may be
instituted in the ecclesiastical court for redress of the injury.
The punishment for defamation, in this court, is payment of costs
and penance enjoined at the discretion of the judge. When the
slander has been privately uttered, the penance may be ordered to
be performed in a private place; when publicly uttered, the
sentence must be public, as in the church of the parish of the
defamed party, in time of divine service,, and the defamer may be
required publicly to pronounce that by such words, naming them,
as set forth in the sentence, he had defamed the plaintiff, and,
therefore, that he begs pardon, first, of God, and then of the
party defamed, for uttering such words. Clerk's Assist. 225; 3
Burn's Eccl. Law, Defamation, pl. 14; 2 Chit. Pr. 471 Cooke on
Def.
DEFAULT. The neglect to perform a legal obligation or duty;
but in technical language by default is often understood the
non-appearance of the defendant within the time prescribed by
law, to defend himself; it also signifies the non-appearance of
the plaintiff to prosecute his claim.
2. When the plaintiff makes default, he may be nonsuited; and
when the defendant makes default, judgment by default is rendered
against him. Com. Dig. Pleader, E 42 Id. B 11. Vide article
Judgment by Default, and 7 Vin. Ab. 429; Doct. Pl. 208 Grah. Pr.
631. See, as to what will excuse or save a default, Co. Litt. 259
b.
DEFAULT, contracts, torts. By the 4th section of the English
statute of frauds, 29 Car. H., c. 3, it is enacted that "no
action shall be brought to charge the defendant upon any special
promise to answer for the debt, default, or miscarriage of
another person, unless the agreement," &c., "shall be in
writing," &c. By default under this statute is understood the
non-performance of duty, though the same be not founded on a
contract. 2 B. & A. 516.
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DEFAULTER, com. law. One who is deficient in his accounts, or
falls in making his accounts correct.
DEFEASANCE, contracts, conveyancing. An instrument which
defeats the force or operation of some other deed or estate.
That, which in the same deed is called a condition, in another
deed is a defeasance.
2. Every defeasance must contain proper words, as that the
thing shall be void. 2 Salk. 575 Willes, 108; and vide Carth.
64. A defeasance must be made in eodem modo, and by, matter as
high as the thing to be defeated; so that if one be by deed) the
other must also be by deed. Touchs. 397.
3. It is a general rule, that the defeasance shall be a part,
of the same transaction with the conveyance; though the
defeasance may be dated after the deed. 12 Mass. R. 13 Pie P. 413
1 N. 11. Rep. 41; but see 4 Yerg. 57, contra. Vide Bouv. Inst.
Index, h. t.; Vin. Ab. h. t.; Com. Dig. h. t.; Id. Pleader, 2
W 35, 2 W 37; Lilly's Reg. h. t.; Nels. Ab. h. t.; 2 Saund. 47
n, note 1; Cruise, Dig. tit. 32, c. 7,, s. 25; 18 John. R. 45;
9 Wend. R. 538; 2 Mass. R. 493.
DEFEASIBLE. What may be undone or annulled.
DEFECT. The want of something required by law.
2. It is a general rule that pleadings shall have these two
requisites; 1. A matter sufficient in law. 2. That it be deduced
and expressed according to the forms of law. The want of either
of these is a defect.
3. Defects in matters of substance cannot be cured, because it
does not appear that the plaintiff is entitled to recover; but
when the defects are in matter of form, they are cured by a
verdict in favor of the party who committed them. 3 Bouv. Inst.
n. 3292; 2 Wash. 1; 1 Hen. & Munf. 153; 16 Pick. 128, 541; 1
Day, 315; 4 Conn, 190; 5 Conn. 416; 6 Conn. 176; 12 Conn.
455; 1 P. C. C. R. 76; 2 Green, 133; 4 Blackf. 107; 2 M'Lean,
35; Bac. Ab. Verdict, X.
DEFENCE, torts. A forcible resistance of an attack by force.
2. A man is justified, in defending his person, that of his
wife, children, and servants, and for this purpose he may use as
much force as may be necessary, even to killing the assailant,
remembering that the means used must always be proportioned to
the occasion, and an excess becomes, itself, an injury.
3. A man may also repel force by force in defence of his
personal property, and even justify homicide against one Who
manifestly intends or endeavors by violence or surprise to commit
a known felony, as robbery.
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4. With respect to the defence or protection of the possession
of real property, although it is justifiable even to kill a
person in the act of attempting to commit a forcible felony, as
burglary or arson, yet this justification can only take place
when the party in possession is wholly without fault. 1 Hale,
440, 444; 1 East, P. C. 259, 277. When a forcible attack is made
upon the dwelling-house of another, without any felonious intent,
but barely to commit a trespass, it is in general lawful to
oppose force by force, when the former was clearly illegal. 7
Bing. 305; S. C. 20 Eng. C. L. Rep. 139. Vide, generally, Ham.
N. P. 136, 151 1 Chit. Pr. 589, 616; Grot. lib. 2, c. 1 Rutherf.
Inst. B. 1, c. 16.
DEFENCE, pleading, practice. It is defined to be the denial of
the truth or validity of the complaint, and does not signify a
justification. It is a general assertion that the plaintiff has
no ground of action, which assertion is afterwards extended and
maintained in the plea. 3 Bl. Com. 296; Co. Litt. 127. It is
similar to the contestatio litis of the civilians.
2. Defence is of two descriptions; first half defence, which
is as follows, "venit et defendit vim et injuriam, et dicit,"
&c.; or secondly, full defence, "venit et defendit vim et
injuriam, quando," &c. meaning "quando et ubi curia
consideravit," (or when and where it shall behoove him,) " et
damna et quicquid quod ipse defendere debet et dicit," &c. Co.
Litt. 127, b; Bac. Abr. Pleas, D Willis, 41.
3. In strictness, the words quando, &c. ought not to be added
when only half defence is to be made; and after the words "venit
et defendit vim et injuriam," the subject matter of the plea
should immediately be stated. Gilb. C. P. 188; 8 T. R. 6 3 2; 3
B. & P. 9, n. a.
4. It has, however, now become the practice in all cases,
whether half or full defence be intended, to, state it a's
follows: "And the said C D, by M N, his attorney, comes and
defends the wrong, (or in trespass, force) and injury, when, &c.
and says," which will be considered only as half defence in cases
where such defence should be made, and as full defence where the
latter is necessary. 8 T. R. 633; Willis, 41 3 B. & P. 9; 2
Saund. 209, c.
5. If full defence were made expressly by the words "when and
where it shall behoove him," and "the damages and whatever else
he ought to defend," the defendant would be precluded from
pleading to the jurisdiction or in abatement, for by defending
when and where it shall behoove him, the defendant acknowledges
the jurisdiction of the court and by defending the damages he
waives all. exception to the person of the plaintiff. 2 Saund.
209, c.; 3 Bl. Com. 297 Co. Litt. 127, b Bac. Abr. Pleas, D.
6. Want of defence being only matter of form, the omission is
aided by general demurrer. 3 Salk. 271. See further, 7 Vin. Abr.
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497; 1 Chit. Pl. 410; Com. Dig. Abatement, I 16; Gould. on Pl.
c. 2, s. 6-15; Steph. Pl. 430.
7. In another sense, defence signifies a justification; as,
the defendant has made a successful defence to the charge laid in
the indictment.
8. The Act of Congress of April 30, 1790, 1 Story, L. U. S. 89,
acting upon the principles adopted in perhaps all the states,
enacts, §28, that every person accused and indicted of the crime
of treason, or other capital offence, shall "be allowed and
admitted to make his full defence by counsel learned in the law;
and the court before whom such person shall be tried, or some
judge thereof, shall, and they are hereby authorized and
requited, immediately upon his request, to assign to such person
such counsel, not exceeding two, as such person shall desire, to
whom such counsel shall have free access, at all seasonable
hours; and every such person or persons, accused or indicted of
the crimes aforesaid, shall be allowed and admitted in his said
defence, to make any proof that he or they can produce, by lawful
witness or witnesses, and shall have the like process of the
court where he or they shall be tried, to compel his or their
witnesses to appear at his or their trial, as is usually granted
to compel witnesses to appear on the prosecution against them."
9. Defences in equity may be classed in two divisions, namely
into dilator defences, (q. v.) and into those which are
peremptory. Matters of peremptory or permanent defences may be
also divided into two sorts, first, those where the plaintiff
never had any right to institute the suit; for example: 1. That
the plaintiff had not a superior right to the defendant. 2. That
the defendant has no interest. 3. That there is no privity
between the plaintiff and defendant, or any right to sustain the
suit. Secondly, those that insist that the original right, if
any, is extinguished or determined; as, 1. When the right is
determined by the act of the parties; or, 2. When it is
determined by operation of law. 4 Bouv. Inst. n. 4199, et seq.;
1 Montag. Eq. Pl. 89. See Dilatory Defence; Merits.
TO DEFEND. To forbid. This word is used in some old English
statutes in the
sense it has in French, namely, to forbid. 5 Pic. 2, c. Lord
Coke uses the word in this sense: it is defended by law to
distrain on the highway." Co Litt. 160, b. 161 a. In an old work
entitled , Legends, printed by Winkin de Worde, in 1527, fo. 96,
we find examples of the use of the word in this sense, " He
defended," (forbade) " to pay the wage," (tribute,) " for he said
he was
a king." " She wrote the obligation when she put her hand to the
tree against the defence." (prohibition of God.)
2. In pleading, to defend is to deny; and the effect of the
word "defends" is, that the defendant denies the right of the
plaintiff, or the force and wrong charged. Steph. Pl. 432.
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3. In contracts, to defend is to guaranty; to agree to
indemnify. In most conveyances of land the grantor covenants to
warrant and defend. It is his duty, then, to prevent all persons
against whom he defends, from doing any act which would evict
him; when there is a mortgage upon the land, and the mortgagee
demands possession or payment of the covenantee, and threatens
suit, this is a breach of the covenant to defend, and for quiet
enjoyment. 17 Mass.
R. 586.
DEFENDANT. A party who is sued in a personal action. Vide
Demandant; Par- ties to Actions; Pursuer; and Com. Dig.
Abatement, F; Action upon the case upon assumpsit, E, b; Bouv.
Inst. Index, h. t.
2. At common law a defendant cannot have judgment to recoyer a
sum of money of the plaintiff. But this rule is, in some cases,
altered by the act of assembly in Pennsylvania, as by the. Act of
1705, for defalcation, by which he may sue out a sci. fac. on the
record of a verdict for a sum found in his favor. 6 Binn. Rep.
175. See Account 6.
DEFENDANT IN ERROR. A party against whom a writ of error is
sued out.
DEFENDER, canon law. The name by which the defendant or
respondent is known in the ecclesiastical courts.
DEFENSIVE ALLEGATION. The defence or mode of propounding a
defence in the spiritual courts, is so called.
DEFICIT. This Latin term signifies that something is wanting.
It is used to express the deficiency which is discovered in the
accounts of an accountant, or in the money in which he has
received.
DEFINITE NUMBER. An ascertained number; the term is usually
applied in op-
position to an indefinite number.
2. When there is a definite number of corporators, in order to
do a lawful act, a majority of the whole must be present; but it
is not necessary they should, be unanimous; a majority of those
present can, in general, perform the act. But when the
corporators consist of an indefinite number, any number,
consisting of a majority of those present, may do the act. 7
Cowen, R. 402 9 B. & Cr. 648, 851; 7 S. & 11. 517; Ang. & Am.
on Corp. 281.
DEFINITION. An enumerition of the principal ideas of which a
compound idea is formed, to ascertain and explain its nature and
character; or it is that which denotes and points out the
substance of a thing, to us. Ayliffe's Pand. 59.
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2. A definition ought to contain every idea which belongs to
the thing defined, and exclude all others.
3. A definition should be, 1st. Universal, that is, such that
it will apply equally to all individuals of, the same kind. 2d.
Proper, that is, such that it will not apply to any other
individual of any other kind. 3d. Clear, that is, without any
equivocal, vague, or unknown word. 4th. Short, that is, without
any useless word, or any foreign to the idea intended to be
defined.
4. Definitions are always dangerous, because it is always
difficult to prevent their being inaccurate, or their becoming
so; omnis definitio injure civili periculosa est, parum est
enim, ut non subvertipossit.
5. All ideas are not susceptible of definitions, and many words
cannot be defined. This inability is frequently supplied, in a
considerable degree, by descriptions. (q. v.)
DEFINITIVE. That which terminates a suit a definitive sentence
or judgment is put in opposition to an interlocutory judgment;
final. (q. v.)
DEFLORATION. The act by which a woman is deprived of her
virginity.
2. When this is done unlawfully, and against her will, it bears
the name of rape, (q. v.) when she consents, it is fornication.
(q. v.)
DE FORCIANT. One who wrongfully keeps the owner of lands and
tenements out of the possession of them. 2 Bl. Com. 350.
DEFORCIARE. To withhold lands or tenements from the right
owner. This is a word of art which cannot be supplied by any
other word. Co. Litt. 331 b; 3 Tho. Co. Litt. 3; Bract. lib. 4,
238; Fleta, lib. c.
DEFORCEMENT, tort. In its most extensive sense it signifies the
holding of any lands or tenements to which another person has a
right; Co . Litt. 277; so that this includes, as well, an
abatement, an intrusion, a disseisin, or a discontinuance, as any
other species of wrong whatsoever, by which the owner of the
freehold is kept out of possession. But, as contradistinguished
from the former, it is only such a detainer, of the freehold,
from him who has the right of property, as falls within none of
the injuries above mentioned. 3 Bl. Com. 173; Archb. Civ. Pl.
13; Dane's Ab. Index, h. t.
DEFORCEMENT, Scotch law. The opposition given, or resistance
made, to messengers or other officers, while they are employed in
executing the law.
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2. This crime is punished by confiscation of movables, the one
half to the king, and the other to the creditor at whose suit the
diligence is used. Ersk. Pr. L. Scot. 4,4,32.
DEFUNCT. A term used for one that is deceased or dead. In some
acts of assembly in Pennsylvania, such deceased person is called
a decedent. (q. v.)
DEGRADATION, punishment, ecclesiastical law. A censure by which
a clergy man is deprived of his holy orders, which he had as a
priest or deacon.
TO DEGRADE, DEGRADING. To, sink or lower a person in the
estimation of the public.
2. As a man's character is of great importance to him, and it
is his interest to retain the good opinion of all mankind, when
he is a witness, he cannot be compelled to disclose any matter
which would tend to disgrace or degrade him, 13 How. St. Tr. 17,
334, 16 How. St. Tr. 161. A question having that tendency,
however, may be asked, and, in such case, when the witness
chooses to answer it, the answer is conclusive. 1 Phil. Ev. 269;
R. & M. 383.
DEGREE, descents. This word is derived from the French degre,
which is itself taken from the Latin gradus, and signifies
literally, a step in a stairway, or the round of a ladder.
2. Figuratively applied, and as it is understood in law, it is
the distance between those who are allied by blood; it means the
relations descending from a common ancestor, from generation to
generation, as by so many steps. Hence, according to some
Lexicographers, we obtain the word, pedigree (q. v.) Par degrez,
by degree, the descent being reckoned par degrez. Minshew. Each
generation lengthens the line of descent one degree, for the
degrees are only the generations marked in a line by small
circles or squares, in which the names of the persons forming it
are written. Vide Consanguinity;, Line; and also Ayliffe's
Parergon, 209; Toull. Dr. Civ. Frau. liv. 3, t. 1, c. 3, n. 158;
Aso & Man. Inst. B. 2, t. 4, c. 3, §1.
DEGREE, measures. In angular measures, a degree is equal to
sixty minutes, or the thirtieth part of a sine. Vide Measure.
DEGREE, persons. By. degree, is understood the state or
condition of a person. The ancient English statute of additions,
for example, requires that in process, for the better description
of a defendant, his state, degree, or mystery, shall be
mentioned.
DEGREES, academical. Marks of distinction conferred on
students, in testimony of their proficiency in arts and sciences.
They are of pontifical origin. See 1 Schmidt's Thesaurus, 144;
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Vicat, ad voc. Doctores Minshew, Dict. ad voc Bacheler; Merl.
Rep ad voc Universite; Van Espen, p. 1, tit. 10, c. Giaunone
Istoria, di Napoli, lib. xi. c. 2, for a full account of this
matter.
DEHORS. Out of; without. By this word is understood something
out of the record, agreement, will, or other thing spoken of;
something foreign to the matter in question.
DEI JUDICIUM. The judgment of God. This name was given to the
barbarous and superstitious trial by ordeal.
DEL CREDERE, contracts. A del credere commission is one under
which the agent, in consideration of an additional premium,
engages to insure to his principal not only the solvency of the
debtor, but the punctual discharge of the debt; and he is
liable, in the first instance, without any demand from the
debtor. 6 Bro. P. C. 287; Beawes, 429; 1 T. Rep. 112; Paley on
Agency, 39.
2. If the agent receive the amount of sales, and remit the
amount to the principal by a bill of exchange, he is not liable
if it should be protested. 2 W. C. C. R. 378. See, also, Com.
Dig. Merchant, B; 4 M. & S. 574.
DELAWARE. The name of one of the original states of the United
States of America. For a time the counties of this state were
connected with Pennsylvania, under the name of territories
annexed to the latter. In 1703, a separation between them took
place, and from that period clown to the Revolution, the
territories were governed by a separate legislature of their own,
pursuant to the liberty reserved to them by a clause of their
original charter. 1 Story, Constitution, §127; 1 Votes of
Assembly, 131, and part 2, p. 4, of Pennsylvania.
2. The constitution of this state was amended and adopted
December 2, 1831. The powers of the government are divided into
three branches, the legislative, the executive, and the judicial.
3. - 1st. The legislative power of the state is vested in a
general assembly, which consists of a senate and house of
representatives.
4. - 1. The senate is composed of three senators from each
county; the number may be increased by the general assembly,
two-thirds of each branch concurring, but the number of senators
shall never be greater than one-half, nor less than two-thirds of
the number of representatives. Art. 2, s. 3. The senators are
chosen for four years by the citizens residing in the several
counties.
5. - 2. The house of representatives is composed of seven
members from each county, but the general assembly, two-thirds
of each branch concurring, may increase the number. The
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representatives are chosen for two years by the citizens residing
in the several counties. Art. 2, s. 2.
6. - 2d. The supreme executive power of the state is vested in
a governor, who is chosen by the citizens of the state. He holds
his office during four years, from the third Tuesday in January
next ensuing his election; and is not eligible a second time to
the said office. Art. 3. Upon the happening of a vacancy, the
speaker of the senate exercises the office, until a governor
elected by the people shall be duly qualified. Art. 3, s. 14.
7. - 3d. The judicial power is vested in a court of errors and
appeals,, a superior court, a court of chancery, an orphan's
court, a court of oyer and terminer, a Court of general sessions
of the peace and jail delivery, a register's court, justices of
the peace, and such other courts as the general assembly, with
the concurrence of two-thirds of all the members of both houses
shall, from time to time, establish. Art. 6.
DELAY, civil law. The time allowed either by law or by
agreement of the parties to do something.
2. The law allows a delay, for a party who has been summoned to
appear, to
make defence, to appeal; it admits of a delay during which and
action may be brought, certain rights exercised, and the like.
3. By the agreement of the parties there may be a delay in the
payment of a debt, the fulfilment of a contract, &c. Vide Code,
3, 11, 4; Nov. 69, c. 2 Merl. Rep. h
DELECTUS PERSONAE. This phrase, which literally signifies the
choice of a person, is applied to show that partners have the
right to select their copartners; and that no set of partners
can take another person into the partnership, without the consent
of each of the partners. Story on Partn. 6 Colly. on Partn. 4; 1
Swanst. 508; 2 Bouv. Inst. n. 1443.
DELEGATE. A person elected by the people of a territory of the
United States, to congress, who has a seat in congress, and a
right of debating, but not of voting. Ordinance of July, 13,
1787, 3 Story's L. U. S. 2076.
2. The delegates from the territories of the United States are
entitled to send and receive letters, free of postage, on the
same terms and conditions as members of the senate and house of
representatives of the United States; and also to the same
compensation as is allowed to members of the senate and house of
representatives. Act of February 18, 1802, 2 Story, L. U. S. 828.
3. A delegate is also a person elected to some deliberative
assembly, usually one for the nomination of officers.
4. In contracts, a delegate is one who is authorized by another
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in the name of the latter; an attorney.
DELEGATION, civil law. It is a kind of novation, (q. v.) by
which the original debtor, in order to be liberated from his
creditor, gives him a third person, who becomes obliged in his
stead to the creditor, or to the person appointed by him.
2. It results from this definition that a delegation is made by
the concurrence of three parties, and that there may be a fourth.
There must be a concurrence, 1. Of the party delegating, that is,
the ancient debtor, who procures another debtor in his stead. 2.
Of the party delegated, who enters into the obligation in the
place of the ancient debtor, either to the creditor of to some
other person appointed by him. 3. Of the creditor, who, in
consequence of the obligation contracted by the party delegated,
discharges the party delegating. Sometimes there intervenes a
fourth party namely, the person indicated by the creditor in
whose favor the person delegated becomes obliged, upon the
indication of the creditor, and by the order of the person
delegating. Poth. Ob. part. 3, c. 2, art. 6. See Louis. Code,
2188, 2189; 3 Wend. 66; 5 N. H. Rep. 410; 20 John. R. 76; 1
Wend. 164; 14 Wend. 116; 11 Serg. & Rawle, 179.
3. Delegation is either perfect or imperfect. It is perfect,
When the debtor who makes the delegation, is discharged by the
creditor. It is imperfect when the creditor retains his rigbts
against the original debtor. 2 Duverg. n. 169. See Novation.
DELEGATION, contracts. The transfer of authority from one or
more persons to one or more others.
2. In general, all persons sui juris may delegate to another
authority to act for them, but to this rule there are exceptions;
1st. On account of the thing to be done; and 2d. Because the act
is of a personal nature, and incapable of being delegated. 1. The
thing to be done must be lawful; for an authority to do a thing
unlawful, is absolutely void. 5 Co. 80. 2. Sometimes, when the
thing to be done is lawful, it must be performed by the person
obligated himself. Com. Dig. Attorney, C 3; Story, on Ag. §12.
3. When a bare power or authority has been given to another,
the latter cannot in general delegate that authority or any part
of it to a third person, for the obvious reason that the
principal relied upon the intelligence, skill and ability of his
agent, and he cannot have the same confidence in a stranger. Bac.
Ab. Authority, D; Com. Dig. Authority, C 3; 12. Mass. 241; 4
Mass. 597; 1 Roll. Ab. Authority, C 1, 15; 4 Camp. 183; 2 M. &
Selw. 298, 301; 6 Taunt. 146; 2 Inst. 507.
4. To this general rule that one appointed as agent, trustee,
and the like, cannot delegate his authority, there are
exceptions: 1. When the agent is expressly authorized to make a
substitution. 1 Liverm. on Ag. 54. 2. When the authority is
implied, as in the following: cases: 1st. When by the laws such
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power is indispensable in order to accomplish the end proposed,
as, for example, when goods are directed to be sold at auction,
and the laws forbid such sales except by licensed auctioneers. 6
S. & R. 386. 2d. When the employment of such substitute is in the
ordinary course of trade, as where it is the custom of trade to
employ a ship broker or other agent for the purpose of procuring
freight and the like . 2 M. & S. 301; 3 John. Ch. R. 167, 178;
6 S. & R. 386. 3d. When it is understood by the parties to be the
mode in which the particular thing would be done. 9 Ves. 234; 3
Chit. Com Law, 206. 4th. When the powers thus delegated are
merely mechanical in their nature. 1 Hill, (N. Y.) R. 501 Bunb.
166; Sugd. on Pow. 176.
5. As to the form of the delegation, it may be for general
purposes, by a verbal or by a written declaration not under seal,
or by acts and implications. 3 Chit. Com. Law, 5, 194, 195; 7 T.
R. 350. But when the act to be done must be under seal, the
delegation must also be under seal. Co. Litt. 48 b; 5 Binn. 613;
14 S. & R. 331 See Authority.
DELEGATION, legislation. It signifies the whole number of the
persons who represent a district, a state, and the like, in a
deliberative assembly; as, the delegation from Ohio, the
delegation from the city of Philadelphia.
TO DELIBERATE. To examine, to consult, in order to form an
opinion. Thus, a jury deliberate as to their verdict.
DELIBERATION, contracts, crimes. The act of the understanding,
by which the party examines whether a thing proposed ought to be
done or not to be done, or whether it ought to be done in one
manner or another. The deliberation relates to the end proposed,
to the means of accomplishing that end, or to both.
2. It is a presumption of law that all acts committed, are
do-ne with due deliberation, that the party intended to do what
he has done. But he may, show the contrary; in contracts, for
example, he may show he has been taken by surprise; (q. v.) and
when a criminal act is charged, he may prove that it Was an
accident, and not with deliberation, that in fact there was no
intention or will. See Intention; Will.
DELIBERATION. legislation. The council which is held touching
some business, in an assembly having the power to act in relation
to it.
2. In deliberative assemblies, it is presumed that each member
will listen to the opinions and arguments of the others before he
arrives at a conclusion.
DELICT, civil law. The act by which one person, by fraud or
malignity, causes some damage or tort to some other. In its most
enlarged sense, this term includes all kinds of crimes and
misdemeanors, and even the injury which has been caused by
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another, either voluntarily or accidentally without evil
intention; but more commonly by delicts are understood those
small offences which are punislied by a small fine or a short
imprisonment.
2. Delicts are either public or private; the public are those
which affect the whole community by their hurtful consequences;
the private is that which is directly injurious to a private
individual. Inst. 4, 18; Id. 4, 1 Dig. 47, 1; Id. 48, 1.
3. A quasi-delict, quasi delictum, is the act of a person, who
without malignity, but by an inexcusable imprudence, causes an
injury to another. Poth. Ob. n. 116; Ersk. Pr. Laws of Scotl. B.
4, t. 4, s. 1.
DELINQUENT, civil law. He who has been guilty of some crime,
offence or failure of duty.
DELIRIUM, med.jur. A disease of the mind produced by
inflammations, particularly in fevers, and other bodily diseases.
2. It is also occasioned by intoxicating agents.
3. Delirium manifests its first appearance "by a propensity of
the patient to talk during sleep, and a momentary forgetfulness
of his situation, and of things about him, on waking from it. And
after being fully aroused, however, and his senses collected, the
mind is comparitively clear and tranquil, till the next slumber,
when the same scene is repeated. Gradually the mental disorder
becomes more intense, and the intervals between its returns of
shorter duration, until they are scarcely, or not at all
perceptible. The patient lies on his back, his eyes, if open,
presenting a dull and listless look, and is almost constantly
talking to himself in a low, muttering tone. Regardless of
persons or things around him and scarcely capable of recognizing
them when aroused by his attendants, his mind retires within
itself to dwell upon the scenes and events of the past, which
pass before it in wild and disorderly array, while the tongue
feebly records the varying impressions, in the form of
disjointed, incoherent discourse, or of senseless rhapsody. In
the delirium which occurs towards the end of chrome diseases, the
discourse is often more coherent and continuous, though the mind
is no less absorbed in its own reveries. As the disorder
advances, the voice becomes more indistinct, the fingers are
constantly picking at the bed-clothes, the evacuations are passed
insensibly, and the patient is incapable of being aroused to any
further effort of attention. In some cases, delirium is attended
with a greater degree of nervous and vascular excitement, which
more or less modifies the above-mentioned symptoms. The eyes are
open, dry, and bloodshot, intently gazing into vacancy, as if
fixed on some object which is really present to the mind of the
patient; the skin is hotter and dryer; and he is more restless
and intractable. He talks more loudly, occasionally breaking out
into cries and vociferation, and tosses about in bed, frequently
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endeavoring to get up, though without any particular object in
view." Ray, Med. Jur. §213.
4. "So closely does delirium resemble mania to the casual
observer, and so important is it that they should be
distinguished from each other, that it may be well to indicate
some of the most common and prominent features of each. In mania,
the patient recognizes persons and things, and is perfectly
conscious of, and remembers what is passing around him. In
delirium, he can seldom distinguish one person or thing from
another, and, as if fully occupied with the images that crowd
upon his memory, gives no attention to those that are presented
from without. In delirium, there is an entire abolition of the
reasoning power; there is no attempt at reasoning at all; the
ideas are all and equally insane; no single train of thought
escapes the morbid influence, nor does a single operation of the
mind reveal a glimpse of its natural vigor and acuteness. In
mania, however false and absurd the ideas may be, we are never at
a loss to discover patches of coherence, and some semblance of
logical sequence in the discourse. The patient still reasons, but
he reasons incorrectly. In mania, the muscular power is not
perceptibly diminished, and the individual moves about with his
ordinary ability. Delirium is invariably attended with great
muscular debility; and the patient is confined to bed, and is
capable of only a momentary effort of exertion. In mania,
sensation is not necessarily impaired and, in most instances, the
maniac sees, bears, and feels with all his natural acuteness. In
delirium, sensation is greatly impaired, and this avenue to the
understanding seems to be entirely closed. In mania, many of the
bodily functions are undisturbed, and the appearance of the
patient might not, at first sight, convey the impression of
disease. In delirium, every function suffers, and the whole
aspect of the patient is indicative of discase. Mania exists
alone and independent of any other disorder, while delirium is
only a symptom or attendant of some other disease. Being a
symptom only, the latter maintains certain relations with the
-discase on which it depends; it is relieved when that is
relieved, and is aggravated when that increases in severity.
Mannia, though it undoubtedly tends to shorten life, is not
immediately dangerous; whereas the disease on which delirium
depends, speedily terminates in death, or restoration to health.
Mania never occurs till after the age of puberty; delirium
attacks all periods alike, from early childhood to extreme old
age." Id. §216.
5. In the inquiry as to the validity of testamentary
dispositions, it is of great importance, in many cases, to
ascertain whether the testator labored under delirium, or whether
he was of sound mind. Vide Sound mind; Unsound mind; 2 Addams,
R. 441; 1 Addams, Rep. 229, 383; 1 Hagg. R. 577; 2 Hagg. R.
142; 1 Lee, Eccl. R. 130; 2 Lee, Eccl. R. 229; 1 Hag . Eccl.
Rep. 256.
DELIRIUM TREMENS, med. jur. A species of insanity which has
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obtained this name, in consequence of the tremor experienced by
the delirious person, when under a fit of the disorder.
2. The disease called delirium tremens or mania a potu, is well
described in the learned work on the Medical Jurisprudence of
Insanity, by Dr. Ray, §315, 316, of which the following is an
extract: "it may be the immediate effect of an excess, or series
of excesses, in those who are not habitually intemperate, as well
as in those who are; but it most commonly occurs in habitual
drinkers, after a few days of total abstinence from spirituous
liquors. It is also very iable to occur in this latter class when
laboring under other diseases, or severe external injuries that
give rise to any degree of constitutional disturbance. The
approach of the disease is generally indicated by a slight tremor
and faltering of the hands and lower extremities, a tremulousness
of the voice, a certain restlessness and sense of anxiety which
the patient knows not how to describe or to account for,
disturbed sleep, and impaired appetite. These symptoms having
continued two or three days, at the end, of which time they have
obviously increased in severity, the patient ceases to sleep
altogether, and soon becomes delirious. At first, the delirium is
not constant, the mind wandering during the night, but during the
day, when its attention is fixed, capable of rational discourse.
It is not long, however, before it becomes constant, and
constitutes the most prominent feature of the disease. This
state, of watchfullness and delirium continues three or four
days, when, if the patient recover, it is succeeded by sleep,
which, at first appears in uneasy and irregular naps, and lastly
in long, sound, and refreshing slumbers. When sleep does not
supervene about this period, the, disease is fatal; and whether
subjected to medical treatment, or left to itself, neither its
symptoms nor duration are materially modified.
3. "The character of the delirium in this disease is peculiar,
bearing a stronger resemblance to dreaming, than any other form
of mental derangement. It would seem as if the dreams which
disturb and harass the mind during the imperfect sleep that
precedes the explosion of the disease, continue to occupy it when
awake, being then viewed as realities, instead of dreams. The
patient imagines himself, for instance, to be in some particular
situation, or engaged in certain occupations according to each
individuals habits and profession, and his discourse and conduct
will be conformed to this delusion, with this striking
peculiarity, however, that he is thwarted at every step, and is
constantly meeting with obstacles that defy his utmost efforts to
remove. Almost invariably, the patient manifests, more or less,
feelings of suspicion and fear, laboring under continual
apprehension of being made the victim of sinister designs and
practices. He imagines that certain people have conspired to rob
or murder him, and insists that he can hear them in an adjoining
apartment, arranging their plans and preparing to rush into his
room; or that he is in a strange place where he is forcibly
detained and prevented from going to his own home. One of the
most common hallucinations is, to be constantly seeing devils,
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snakes, vermin, and all manner of unclean things around him and
about him, and peopling every nook and corner of his apartment
with these loathsome objects. The extreme terror which these
delusions often inspire, produces in the countenance, an
unutterable expression of anguish; and, in the hope of escaping
from his, fancied tormentors, the wretched patient endeavors to
cut his throat, or jump from the window. Under the influence of
these terrible apprehensions, he sometimes murders his wife or
attendant, whom his disordered imagination identifies with his
enemies, though he is generally tractable and not inclined to be
mischievous. After perpetrating an act of this kind, he generally
gives some illusive reason for his conduct, rejoices in his
success, and expresses his regret at not having done it before.
So complete and obvious is the mental derangement in this
disease, so entirely are, the thoughts and actions governed by
the most unfounded and absurd delusions, that if any form of
insanity absolves from criminal responsibility, this certainly
must have that effect. 3 Am. Jur. 5-20.
DELIVERANCE, Practice. A term used by the clerk in court to
every prisoner who is arraigned and pleads not guilty to whom he
wishes a good deliverance. In modern practice this is seldom
used.
DELIVERY, conveyancing. The transferring of a deed from the
grantor to the grantee, in such a manner as to deprive him of the
right to recall it; Dev. Eq. R. 14 or the delivery may be made
and accepted by an attorney. This is indispensably necessary to
the validity of a deed; 9 Shepl. 569 2 Harring. 197; 16 Verm.
563; except it be the deed of a corporation, which, however,
must be executed under their common seal. Watkin's Prin. Con.
300. But although, as a general rule, the delivery of a deed is
essential to its perfection, it is never averred in pleading. 1
Wms. Saund. Rep. 291, note Arch. Dig. of Civ. Pl. 138.
2. As to the form, the delivery may be by words without acts;
as, if the deed be lying upon a table, and the grantor says to
the grantee, "take that as my deed," it will be a sufficient
delivery; or it may be by acts without words, and therefore a
dumb man may deliver a deed. Co. Litt. 36 a, note; 6 Sim. Rep.
31; Gresl. Eq. Ev. 120; Wood. B. 2, c. 3; 6 Miss. R. 326; 5
Shepl. 391; 11 Verm. 621; 6 Watts & S. 329; 23 Wend. 43; 3
Hill, 513; 2 Barr, 191, 193 2 Ev. Poth. 165-6.
3. A delivery may be either absolute, Is when it is delivered
to the grantor himself; or it may be conditional, that is, to a
third person to keep until some condition shall have been
performed by the grantee, and then it is called an escrow. (q.
v.) See 2 Bl. Com. 306 4 Kent. Coin. 446 2 Bouv. Inst. n. 2018,
et seq.; Cruise, Dig. tit. 32, c. 2, s. 87; 5 Serg. & Rawle,
523; 8 Watts, R. 1; and articles Assent; Deed.
4. The formula, "I deliver this as my act and deed," which
means the actual delivery of the deed by the grantor into the
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hands or for the use of the grantee, is incongruous, not to say
absurd, when applied to deeds which cannot in their nature be
delivered to any person; as deeds of revocation, appointment,
&c., under a power where uses to unborn children and the like, if
in fact such instruments, though sealed, can be properly called
deeds, i. e. writings sealed and delivered. Ritson's Practical
Points, 146.
DELIVERY, contracts. The transmitting the possession of a thing
from one person into the power and possession of another.
2. Originally, delivery was a clear and unequivocal act of
giving possession, accomplished by placing the subject to be
transferred in the hands of the buyer or his avowed agent, or in
their respective warehouses, vessels, carts, and the like. This
delivery was properly considered as the true badge of transferred
property, as importing full evidence of consent to transfer;
preventing the appearance of possession in the transferrer from
continuing the credit of property unduly; and avoiding
uncertainty and risk in the title of the acquirer.
3. The complicated transactions of modern trade, however,
render impossible a strict adherence to this simple rule. It
often happens that the purchaser of a commodity cannot take
immediate possession and receive the delivery. The bulk of the
goods; their peculiar situation, as when they are deposited in
public custody for duties, or in the hands of a manufacturer for
the purpose of having some operation of his art performed upon
them, to fit them for the market the distance they are from the
house; the frequency of bargains concluded by correspondence
between distant countries, and many other obstructions,
frequently render it impracticable to give or to receive actual
delivery. In these and such like cases, something short of actual
delivery has been considered sufficient to transfer the property.
4. In sales, gifts, and other contracts, where the party
intends to transfer the property, the delivery must be made with
the intent to enable the receiver to obtain dominion over it. 3
Serg. & Rawle, 20; 4 Rawle, 260; 5 Serg. & Rawle, 275 9 John.
337. The delivery may be actual, by putting the thing sold in the
hands or possession of the purchaser; or it may be symbolical,
as where a man buys goods which are in a room, the receipt of the
keys will be sufficient. 1 Yeates, 529; 5 Johns. R. 335; 1
East, R. 192.; 3 Bos. & Pull. 233; 10 Mass. 308; 6 Watts &
Serg. 94. As to what will amount to a delivery of goods and
merchandise, vide 1 Holt, 18; 4 Mass. 661; 8 Mass. 287; 14
Johns. R. 167; 15 Johns. R. 849; 1 Taunt. R. 318 H. Black. R.
316, 504; 1 New R. 69; 6 East, R. 614.
5. There is sometimes considerable difficulty in ascertaining
the particular period when the property in the goods sold passes
from the vendor to the vendee; and what facts amount to an
actual delivery of the goods. Certain rules have been
established, and the difficulty is to apply the facts of the
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case.
6. - 1. Where goods are sold, if nothing remains to be done on
the part of the seller as between him and the buyer, before the
article is to be deliver-ed, the property has passed. East, R.
614; 4 Mass. 661; 8 Mass. 287 14 Johns. 167; 15 Johns. 349; 1
Holt's R. 18; 3 Eng. C. L. r. 9.
7. - 2. Where a chattel is made to order, the property therein
is not vested in the quasi vendee, until finished and delivered,
though he has paid for it. 1 Taunt. 318.
8. - 3. The criterion to determine whether there has been a
delivery on a sale, is to consider whether the vendor still
retains, in that character, a right over. the property. 2 H.
Blackst, R. 316.
9. - 4. Where a part of the goods sold by an entire contract,
has been taken possession of by the vendee, that shall be deemed
a taking possession of the whole. 2 H. Bl. R. 504; 1 New Rep.
69. Such partial delivery is not a delivery of the whole, so as
to vest in the vendee the entire property in the whole, where
some act, other than the payment of the price, is necessary to be
performed in order to vest the property. 6 East, R. 614.
10. - 5. Where goods are sent by order to a carrier the carrier
receives them as the vendee's agent. Cowp. 294; 3 Bos. & Pull.
582; 2 N. R. 119.
11. - 6. A delivery may be made in a very slight manner; as
where one buys goods which are in a room, the receipt of the key
is sufficient. 1 Yeates, 529; 5 Johns. 335; 1 East, R. 192.
See, also, 3. B. & P. 233 7 East, Rep. 558; 1 Camp. 235.
12. - 7. The vendor. of bulky articles is not bound to, deliver
them, unless he stipulated to do so; be must give notice to the
buyer that he is ready to deliver them. 5 Serg. & Rawle, 19; 12.
Mass. 300; 4 Shepl. Rep. 49; and see 3 Johns. 399; 13 Johns.
294; 19 Johns. 218; 1 Dall. 171.
13. - 8. A sale of bricks in a brick-yard, accompanied with a
lease of the yard until the bricks should be sold and removed,
was held to be valid against the creditors of the vendor, without
an actual removal. 10 Mass. 308.
14. - 9. Where goods were contracted to be sold upon condition
that the vendee should give security for the price, and they are
delivered without security being given, but with the declaration
on the part of the vendor that the transaction should not be
deemed a sale, until the security should be furnished; it was
held that the goods remained the property of the vendor,
notwithstanding the delivery. But it seems that in such cases the
goods would be liable for the debts of, the vendee's creditors,
originating after the delivery; and that the vendee may, for a
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bona fide consideration, sell the goods while in his possession.
4 Mass. 405.
15. - 10. Where goods are sold to be paid for on delivery, if,
on delivery, the vendee refuses to pay for them, the property is
not divested from the vendor. 13 Johns. 434; 1 Yeates, 529.
16. - 11. If the vendor rely on the promises of the vendee to
perform the conditions of the sale, and deliver the goods
accordingly, the right of property. is changed; but where,
performance and delivery are understood to be simultaneous,
possession, obtained by artifice, will not vest a title in the
vendee. 3 Serg. & Rawle, 20.
17. - 12. Where, on the sale of a chattel, the purchase money
is paid, the property is vested in the vendee, and if he permit
it to remain in the custody of the vendor, he cannot call upon
the latter for any subsequent loss or deterioration not arising
from negligence. 2 Johns. 13; 2 Caines, R. 38 3 Jolins. 394.
18. In order to make a good donatio mortis causa, it is
requisite that there should be a delivery of the subject to or
for the donee, where such delivery can be made. 3 Binn. R. 370;
1 Miles, Rep. 109, 110; 2 Ves. Jr. 120; 9 Ves. Jr. 1.
19. The delivery of the key of the place where bulky goods are
deposited, is, however, a sufficient delivery of such goods. 2
Ves. Sen. 445. Vide 3 P. Wms. 357; 2 Bro. C. C. 612; 4 Barn. &
A. 1; 3 Barn. & C. 45 Bouv. Inst. Index, h. t. See Sale;
Stoppage in transitu; Tender; and Domat, Lois Civiles, Liv. 1,
tit. 2, s. 2 Harr. Dig. Sale, II. 3.
DELIVERY, child-birth, med. jur. The act of a woman giving
birth to her off-
spring.
2. It is frequently of great importance to ascertain whether or
not a delivery has taken place, and the time when it took place.
Delivery may be considered with regard, 1. To pretended delivery.
2. To concealed delivery and, 3. To the usual signs of delivery.
3. - 1. In pretended delivery, the female declares herself to
be a mother, without being so in reality; an act always prompted
by folly or fraud.
4. Pretended delivery may present itself in three points of
view, 1. When the female who feigns has never been pregnant. When
thoroughly investigated, this may always be detected. There are
signs which must be present, and cannot be feigned. An
enlargement of the orifice of the uterus, and a tumefaction of
the organs of generation, should always be present, and if
absent, are conclusive against the' fact. Annales d'Hygiene, tome
ii. p. 227. 2. When the pretended pregnancy and delivery have
been preceded by one or more deliveries. In this case, attention
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should be given to the following circumstances: the mystery, if
any, which has been affected with regard to the situation of the
female; her age; that of her hushand and particularly whether
aged or decrepid. 3. When the woman has been actually delivered,
and substitutes a living for a dead child. But little evidence
can be obtained on this subject from a physical examination.
5. - 2. Concealed delivery generally takes place when the woman
either has destroyed her offspring, or it was born dead. In
suspected cases, the following circumstances should be attended
to: 1. The proofs of pregnancy which arise in consequence of the
examination of the mother. When she has been pregnant, and has
been delivered, the usual signs of delivery, mentioned below,
will be present. A careful investigation as to the woman's
appearance, before and since the delivery, will have some weight,
though such evidence is not always to be relied upon, as such
appearances are not unfrequently deceptive. 2. The proofs of
recent delivery. 3. The connexion between the supposed state of
parturition, and the state of the child that is found; for if
the age of the child do not correspond to that time, it will be a
strong circumstance in favor of the mother's innocence. A redness
of the shin and an attachment of the umbilical cord to the navel,
indicate a recent birth. Whether the child was living at its
birth, belongs to the subject of infanticide. (q. v.)
6. - 3. The usual signs of delivery are very well collected in
Beck's excellent treatise on Medical Jurisprudence, and are here
extracted: If the female be examined within three or four days
after the occurrence of delivery, the following circumstances
will generally be observed: greater or less weakness, a slight
paleness of the face, the eye a little sunken, and surrounded by
a purplish or dark brown colored ring, and a whiteness of the
skin, like a person convalescing from disease. The belly is soft,
the skin of the abdomen is lax, lies in folds, and is traversed
in various directions by shining reddish and whitish lines, which
especially extend from the groins and pubis to the naval. These
lines have sometimes been termed linecae albicantes, and are
particularly observed near the umbilical region, where the
abdomen has experienced the greatest distention. The breasts
become tumid and hard, and on pressure emit a fluid, which at
first is serous, and afterwards gradually becomes whiter; and
the presence of this secretion is generally accompanied with a
full pulse and soft skin, covered with a moisture of a peculiar
and somewhat acid odor. The areolae round the nipples are dark
colored. The external genital organs and vagina are dilated and
tumefied throughout the whole of their extent, from the pressure
of the foetus. The uterus may be felt through the abdominal
parietes, voluminous, firm, and globular, and rising nearly as
high as the umbilicus. Its orifice is soft and tumid, and dilated
so as to admit two or more fingers. The fourchette; or anterior
margin of the perinaeum, is sometimes torn, or it is lax, and
appears to have suffered considerable distention. A discharge
(termed the lochial) commences from the uterus, which is
distinguished from the menses by its pale color, its peculiar and
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well-known smell, and its duration. The lochia are at first of a
red color, and gradually become lighter until they cease.
7. These signs may generally be relied upon as indicating the
state of pregnancy, yet it requires much experience in order not
to be deceived by appearances.
8. - 1. The lochial discharge might be mistaken for
menstruation, or fluor albus, were it not for its peculiar smell;
and this it has been found impossible, by any artifice, to
destroy.
9. - 2. Relaxation of the soft parts arises as frequently from
menstruation as from delivery; but in these cases the os uteri
and vagina are not so much tumefied, nor is there that tenderness
and swelling. The parts are found pale and flabby, when all signs
of contusion disappear, after delivery; and this circumstance
does not follow menstruation.
10. - 3. The presence of milk, though a usual sign of delivery,
is not always to be relied upon, for this secretion may take
place independent of pregnancy.
11.-4. The wrinkles and relaxations of the abdomen which follow
delivery, may be the consequence of dropsy, or of lankness
following great obesity. This state of the parts is also seldom
striking after the birth of the first child, as they shortly
resume their natural state. Vide, generally, 1 Beck's Med. Jur.
c. 7, p. 206; 1 Chit. Med. Jur. 411; Ryan's Med. Jur. ch. 10,
p. 133; 1 Briand, Med. Leg. lere partie, c. 5.
DELUSION, med. jurisp. A diseased state of the mind, in which
persons believe things to exist, which exist only, or in the
degree they are conceived of only in their own imaginations, with
a persuasion so fixed and firm, that neither evidence nor
argument can convince them to the contrary.
2. The individual is, of course, insane. For example, should a
parent unjustly persist without the least ground in attributing
to his daughter a course of vice, and use her with uniform
unkindness, there not being the slightest pretence or color of
reason for the supposition, a just inference of insanity, or
delusion, would arise in the minds of a jury: because a
supposition long entertained and persisted in, after argument to
the contrary, and against the natural affections of a parent,
suggests that he must labor under some morbid mental delusion. 3
Addams' R. 90, 91; Id. 180; Hagg. R. 27 and see Dr. Connolly's
Inquiry into Insanity, 384; Ray, Med. Jur. Prel. Views., §20, p.
41, and §22, p. 47; 3 Addams, R. 79; 1 Litt. R. 371 Annales
d'Hygiene Publique, tom. 3, p. 370; 8 Watts, 70; 13 Ves. 89; 1
Pow. Dev. by Jarman, 130, note Shelf. on Lun. 296; 2 Bouv. Inst.
n. 2104-10.
DEMAND, contracts. A claim; a legal obligation.
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2. Lord Coke says, that demand is a word of art, and of an
extent, in its signification, greater than any other word except
claim. Litt. sect. 508; Co. Litt. 291; 2 Hill, R. 220; 9 S. &
R. 124; 6 Watts and S. 226. Hence a release of all demands is,
in general, a release of all covenants, real and personal,
conditions, whether broken or not, annuities, recognizances,
obligations, contracts, and the like. 3 Tho. Co. Litt. 427; 3
Penna, 120; 2 Hill, R. 228.
3. But a release of all demands does not discharge rent before
it is due, if it be a rent incident to the reversion; for the
rent was not only not due, but the consideration - the future
enjoyment of the lands - for which the rent was to be given, was
not executed. 1 Sid. 141; 1 Lev. 99 3 Lev. 274; Bac. Ab.
Release, I.
DEMAND, practice. A requisition or a request by one individual
to another to do a particular thing.
2. Demands are either express or implied. In many cases, an
express demand must be made before the commencement of an
action, some of which will be considered below; in other cases
an implied demand is all that the law requires, and the bringing
of an action is a sufficient demand in those cases. 1 Saund. 33,
note 2.
3. A demand is frequently necessary to secure to a man all his
rights, both in actions arising on contracts and those which are
founded on some tort. It is requisite also, when it is intended
to bring the party into contempt for not performing an order
which has been made a rule of court.
4. - 1. Whether a demand is requisite before the plaintiff can
commence an action arising on contract, depends upon express or
implied stipulations of the parties. In case of the sale of
property, for example, to be paid for on delivery, a demand of it
must be made before the commencement of an action for
non-delivery, and proved on the trial, unless it can be shown
that the seller has incapacitated himself by a resale and
delivery of the property to another person, or otherwise. 1 East,
R. 204 5 T. R. 409; 10 East, R. 359; 5 B. & Ald. 712 2 Bibb,
280 Hardin, 79; 1 Verm. 25; 5 Cowen, 516. 16 Mass. 453; 6
Mass. 61 4 Mass. 474; 3 Bibb, 85; 3 Wend. 556; 5 Munf. R. 1;
2 Greenl. 308; 9 John. 361; 6 Hill, N. Y. Rep. 297.
5. On the same principles, a request on a general promise to
marry is requisite, unless it be dispensed with by the party's
marrying another person, which puts it out of his power to fulfil
his contract, or that he refuses to marry at any time. 2 Dow. &
Ry. 55; 1 Chit. Pr. 57, note (n), and 438, note (e)
6. A demand of rent must always be made before a re-entry for
the non-payment of rent. Vide Re-entry.
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7. When a note is given and no time of payment is mentioned, it
is payable immediately. 8 John. R. 374; 5 Cowen, R. 516 1 Conn.
R. 404; 1 Bibb, R. 164;
1 Blackf. R. 233.
8. There are cases where, a demand is not originally necessary,
but becomes so by the act of the obligor. On a promissory note no
express demand of payment is requisite before bringing an action,
but if the debtor tenders the amount due to the creditor on the
note, it becomes necessary before bringing. an action, to make a
demand of the debtor for payment; and this should be of the very
sum tendered. 1 Campb. 181 Id. 474; 1 Stark. R. 323; 2 E. C. L.
R. 409.
9. When a debt or obligation is payable, and no day of payment
is fixed, it is payable, on demand. In omnibus obligationibus in
quibus dies non ponitur, presenti die debitur. Jac. Introd. 62;
7 T. R. 427 Barn. & Cr. 157. The demand must, however, be made in
a reasonable time, for after the lapse of twenty years, a
presumption will arise that the note has been paid; but, like
some other presumptions, it may be rebutted, by showing the fact
that the note remains unpaid. 5 Esp. R. 52 1 D. & R. 16 Byles on
Bills, 169.
10. When demand of the payment of a debt, secured by note or
other instrument, is made, the party making it should be ready to
deliver up such note or instrument, on payment. If it has been
lost or destroyed, an indemnity should be offered. 2 Taunt. 61;
3 Taunt. 397; 5 Taunt. 30; 6 Mass. R. 524; 7 Mass. R. 483; 13
Mass. R. 557; 11 Wheat. R. 171; 4 Verm. R. 313; 7 Gill &
Johns. 78 3 Whart. R. 116; 12 Pick. R. 132 17 Mass. 449.
11.-2. It is requisite in some cases arising ex delicto, to
make a demand of
restoration of the right before the commencement of an action.
12. The following are examples 1. When the wife, apprentice, or
servant of one person, has been harbored by another, the proper
course is to make a demand of restoration before an action
brought, in order to constitute the party a wilful wrongdoer,
unless the plaintiff can prove an original illegal enticing away.
2 Lev. 63: Willes, 582; 1 Peake's C. N. P. 55; 5 East, 39; 6
T. R. 652; 4 Moore's R. 12 16 E. C. L. R. 3 5 7.
13. - 2. In cases where the taking of goods is lawful, but
their subsequent detention becomes illegal, it is absolutely
necessary, in order to secure sufficient evidence of a conversion
on the trial, to give a formal notice of the owner's right to the
property and possession, and to make a formal demand in writing
of the delivery of such possession to the owner. The refusal to
comply with such a demand, unless justified by some right which
the possessor may have in the thing detained, will in general
afford sufficient evidence of a conversion. 2 Saund. 47, note
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(e); 1 Chit. Pr. 566.
14. - 3. When a nuisance has been erected or continued by a man
on his own land) it is advisable, particularly in the case of a
private nuisance, to give the party notice and request him to
remove it, either before an entry is made for the purpose of
abating it, or an action is commenced against the wrong doer and
a demand is always indispensable in cases of a continuance of a
nuisance originally created by another person. 2 B. & C. 302; S.
C. 9 E. C. L. R. 96 Cro. Jac. 555; 5 Co. 100, 101; 2 Phil. Ev.
8, 18, n. 119; 1 East, 111; 7 Vin. Ab. 506; 1 Ayl. Pand. 497;
Bac. Ab. Rent, 1. Vide articles Abatement of Nuisance, and if
Nuisance. For the allegation of a demand or request in a
declaration, see article Licet scoepius requisitus; and Com.
Dig. Pleader, C 70 2 Chit. Pl. 84; 1 Saund. 33, note 2; 1 Chit.
Pl. 322.
15. - 4. When an order to pay money, or to do any other thing,
has been made a rule of court, a demand for the payment of the
money, or performance of the thing, must be made before an
attachment will be issued for a contempt. 2 Dowl. P. C. 338, 448:
1 C. M. & R. 88, 459; 4 Tyr. 369; 2 Scott, 193; 4 Dowl. P. C.
114; 1 Hodges 197; 1 Har. & Woll. 216; 1 Hodges, 157; Id.
337; 4 Dowl. P. C. 86.
DEMAND IN RECONVENTION. In Louisiana, this term is used to
signify the demand which the defendant institutes in consequence
of that which the plaintiff has brought against him. Code of Pr.
art. 374. Vide Cross action.
DEFANDANT, practice. The plaintiff or party who brings a real
action, is called the demandant. Co. Litt. 127; 1 Com. Dig. 85.
DEMENCY, dementia, med. jur. A defect, hebetude, or imbecility
of the under standing, general or partial, but confined to
individual faculties of the mind, particularly those concerned in
associating and comparing ideas, whence proceeds great, confusion
and incapacity in arranging the thoughts. 1 Chit. Med. Jur. 351;
Cyclop. Practical Med. tit. Insanity; Ray, Med. Jur. ch. 9; 1
-Beck's Med. Jur. 547.
2. Demency is attended with a general enfeeblement of the moral
and intellectual faculties, consequence of age or disease, which
were originally well developed and sound. It is characterised by
forgetfulness of the past; indifference to the present and
future, and a childish disposition. It differs from idiocy and
imbecility. In these latter, the powers of the mind were never
possessed, while in demency, they have been lost.
3. Demency may also be distinguished from mania, with which it
is sometimes confounded. In the former, the mind has lost its
strength, and thereby the reasoning faculty is impaired; while
in the latter, the madness arises from an exaltation of vital
power, or from a morbid excess of activity.
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4. Demency is divided into acute and chronic. The former is a
consequence of temporary errors of regimen, fevers, hemorrhages,
&c., and is susceptible of cure the latter, or chronic demency,
may succeed mania, apoplexy, epilepsy, masturbation, and
drunkenness, but is generally that incurable decay of the mind
which occurs in old age.
5. When demency has been fully established in its last stages,
the acts of the individual of a civil nature will be void,
because the party had no consenting mind. Vide Contracts; Wills;
2 Phillim. R. 449. Having no legal will or intention, he cannot
of course commit a crime. Vide Insanity; Mania.
DEMESNE, Eng. law. The name given to that portion of the Iands
of a manor which the lord retained in his own hands for the use
of himself and family. These lands were called terra dominicales
or demesne lands, because they were occupied by the lord, or
dominus manerii, and his servants, &c. 2 Bl. Com. 90. Vide
Ancient Demesne; Demesne as of fee; and Soil assault demesne.
DEMESNE AS OF FEE. A man is said to be seised in his demesne as
of fee of a corporeal inheritance, because he has a property
dominicum or demesne in the thing itself. 2 Bl. Com. 106. But
when he has no dominion in the thing itself, as in the case of an
incorporeal hereditament, he is said to be seised as of fee, and
not in his demesne as of fee. Liit. s. 10; 17 S. & R. 196;
Jones on Land Titles, i66.
2. Formerly it was the practice in an action on the case, e. g.
for a nuisance to real estate, to aver in the declaration the
seisin of the plaintiff in demesne as of fee; and this is still
necessary, in order to estop the record with the land; so that
it may run with or attend the title. Arch. Civ. Pl. 104; Co.
Ent. 9, pl. 8 Lill. Ent. 62; 1 Saund. Rep. 346; Willes, Rep.
508. But such an action may be maintained on the possession as
well as on the seisin, although the effect of the record in this
case upon the title would not be the same. Steph. on Pl. 322
Arch. Dig. 104; 1 Lutw. 12; 2 Mod. 71; 4 T. R. 718; 2 Saund.
1 Arch. Dig. 105; Cro. Car. 500. 575
DEMIDIETAS. This word is used in ancient records for a moiety,
or one half. DEMIES. In some universities and colleges this term
is synonymous with scholars. Boyle on Charities, 129.
DEMISE, contracts. In its most extended signification, it is a
conveyance either in fee, for life, or for years. In its more
technical meaning, it is a lease or conveyance for a term of
years. Vide Cow. L. & T. Index, h. t.; Ad. Eject. Index, h. t.;
2 Hill. Ab. 130; Com. Dig. h. t., and the heads there referred
to. According to Chief Justice Gibson, the term demise strictly
denotes a posthumous grant, and no more. 5 1 Whart. R. 278. See 4
Bing. N. C. 678; S. C. 33 Eng. C. L. R. 492; 2 Bouv. Inst. n.
1774, et seq.
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DEMISE, persons. A term nearly synonymous with death. It is
usually applied in England to the death of the king or queen.
DEMOCRACY, government. That form of government in which the
sovereign power is exercised by the people in a body, as was the
practice in some of the states of Ancient Greece; the term
representative democracy has been given to a republican
government like that of the United States.
DEMONSTRATION. Whatever is said or written to designate a thing
or person. For example, a gift of so much money, with a fund
particularly referred to for its payment, so that if the fund be
not the testator's property at his death, the legacy will fail;
this is called a demonstrative legacy. 4 Ves. 751; Lownd. Leg.
85; Swinb. 485.
2. A legacy given to James, who married my cousin, is
demonstrative; these expressions present the idea of a
demonstration; there are many James, but only one who married my
cousin. Vide Ayl. Pand. 130; Dig. 12, 1, 6; Id. 35, 1, 34 Inst.
2, 20, 30.
3. By demonstration is also understood that proof which
excludes all possibility of error; for example, mathematical
deductions.
DEMURRAGE, mar. law. The freighter of a ship is bound not to
detain it, beyond the stipulated or usual time, to load, or to
deliver the cargo, or to sail. The extra days beyond the lay days
(being the days allowed to load and unload the cargo), are called
the days of demurrage; and that term is likewise applied to the
payment for such delay, and it may become due, either by the
ship's detention, for the purpose of loading or unloading the
cargo, either before, or during, or after the voyage, or in
waiting for convoy. 3 Kent, Com. 159; 2 Marsh, 721; Abbott on
Ship. 192 5 Com. Dig. 94, n., 505; 4 Taunt. 54, 55; 3 Chit.
Com. Law, 426; Harr. Dig. Ship and Shipping, VII.
DEMURRER. (From the Latin demorari, or old French demorrer, to
wait or stay.) In pleading, imports, according to its etymology,
that the objecting party will not proceed with the pleading,
because no sufficient statement has been made on the other side;
but will wait the judgment of the court whether he is bound to
answer. 5 Mod. 232; Co. Litt. 71, b; Steph. Pl. 61.
2. A demurrer may be for insufficiency either in substance or
in form that is, it may be either on the ground that the case
shown by the opposite party is essentially insufficient, or on
the ground that it is stated in an inartificial manner; for the
law requires in every pleading, two thing's; the one, that it be
in matter sufficient; the other, that it be deduced and
expressed according to the forms of law; and if either the one
or the other of these be wanting, it is cause of demurrer. Hob.
164. A demurrer, as in its nature, so also in its form, is of two
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kinds; it is either general or special.
3. With respect to the effect of a demurrer, it is, first, a
rule, that a demurrer admits all such matters of fact as are
sufficiently pleaded. Bac. Abr. Pleas, N 3; Com. Dig. Pleader, Q
5. Again, it is it rule that, on a demurrer, the court will
consider the whole record, and give judgment for the party who,
on the whole, appears to be entitled to it. Com. Dig. Pleader, M.
1, M 2; Bad. Abr. Pleas. N 3; 5 Rep. 29 a: Hob. 56; 2 Wils.
150; 4 East, 502 1 Saund. 285 n. 5. For example, on a demurrer
to the replication, if the court think the replication bad, but
perceive a substantial fault in the plea, they will give
judgment, not for the defendant, but for the plaintiff; 2 Wils.
R. 1&0; provided the declaration be good; but if the
declaration also be bad in substance, then upon the same
principle, judgment would be given for the defendant. 5 Rep. 29
a. For when judgment is to be given, whether the issue be in law
or fact, and whether the cause have proceeded to issue or not,
the court is always to examine the whole record, and adjudge for
the plaintiff or defendant, according to the legal right, as it
may on the whole appear.
4. It is, however, subject to, the following exceptions; first,
if the plaintiff demur to a plea in abatement, and the court
decide against the plea, they will give judgment of respondeat
ouster, without regard to any defect in the declaration. Lutw.
1592, 1667; 1 Salk. 212; Carth. 172 Secondly, the court will
not look back into the record, to adjudge in favor of an apparent
right in the plaintiff, unless the plaintiff have himself put his
action upon that ground. 5 Barn. & Ald 507. Lastly, the court, in
examining the whole record, to adjudge according to the apparent
right, will consider the right in matter of substance, and not in
respect of mere form, such as should have been the subject of a
special demurrer. 2 Vent. 198-222.
5. There can be no demurrer to a demurrer: for a demurrer upon
a demurrer, or pleading over when an issue in fact is offered, is
a discontinuance. Salk. 219; Bac. Abr. Pleas, N 2.
6. Demurrers are general and special, and demurrers to
evidence, and to interrogatories.
7. - 1. A general demurrer is one which excepts to the
sufficiency of a previous pleading in general terms, without
showing specifically the nature of the objection; and such
demurrer is sufficient, when the objection is on matter of
substance. Steph. Pl. 159; 1 Chit. Pl. 639; Lawes, Civ. Pl.
167; Bac. Abr. Pleas, N 5; Co. Lit. 72 a.
8. - 2. A special demurrer is one which excepts to the
sufficiency of the pleadings on the,opposite side, and shows
specifically the nature of the objection and the particuIar
ground of exception. Co. Litt. 72, a.; Bac. Abr. Pleas, N 5.
9. A special demurrer is necessary, where it turns on matter of
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form only; that is, where, notwithstanding such objections,
enough appears to entitle the opposite party to judgment, as far
as relates to the merits of the cause. For, by two statutes, 27
Eliz. ch. 5, and 4 Ann. ch. 16, passed with a view to the
discouragement of merely formal objections, it is provided in
nearly the same terms, that the judges "shall give judgment
according to the very right of the cause and matter in law as it
shall appear unto them, without regarding any imperfection,
omission, defect or want of form, except those only 'Which the
party demurring shall, specifically. and particularly set down
and express, together with his demurrer, as the causes of the
same." Since these statutes, therefore, no mere matter of form
can be objected to on a general demurrer; but the demurrer must
be in the special form, and the objection specifically stated.
But, on the other hand, it is to be observed, that, under a
special demurrer, the party may, on the argument, not only take
advantage of the particular faults which his demurrer specifies,
but also of all objections in substance, or regarding the very
right of the cause, (as the statute expresses it.) as under those
statutes, need not be particularly set down. It follows,
therefore, that unless the objection be clearly of the
substantial kind, it is the safer course, in all cases, to demur
specially. Yet, where a general demurrer is plainly efficient, it
is more usually adopted in prctice; because the effect of the
special form being to apprise the opposite party more distinctly
of the nature of the objection, it is attended with the
inconvenience, of enabling him to prepare to maintain his
pleading by argument, or of leading him to apply the earlier to
amend. With respect to the degree of particularity, with which,
under these statutes, the special demurrer must assign the ground
of objection, it may be observed, that it is not sufficient to
object, in general terms, that the pleading is "uncertain,
defective, and informal," or the like, but if is necessarily to
show in what, it respect, uncertain, defective, and informal. 1
Saund. 161, n. 1, 337 b, n. 3; Steph. Pl. 159, 161; 1 Chit. Pl.
642.
10.- 3. A demurrer to evidence is analogous to a demurrer in
pleading; the party from whom it comes declaring that he will
not proceed, because the evidence offered on the other side, is
not sufficient to maintain the issue. Upon joinder in demurrer,
by the opposite party, the jury are, in general, discharged from
giving any verdict; 1 Arch. Pr. 186; and the demurrer being
entered on record, is afterwards argued and decided by the court
in banc; and the judgment there given upon it, may ultimately be
brought before a court of error. See 2 H. Bl. 187 4 Chit. Pr. 15
Gould on Pl. c. 9, part 2, §47 United States Dig. Pleading, Viii.
11. - 4. Demurrer to interrogatories. By this phrase is
understood the reasons which a witness tenders for not answering
a particular question in interrogatories. 2 Swanst. R. 194.
Strictly speaking, this is not a demurrer, which admits the facts
stated, for the purpose of taking the. opinion of the court but
by an abuse of the term, the witness objection to answer is
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called a demurrer, in the popular sense. Gresl. Eq. Ev. 61.
12. The court are judicially to determine their validity. The
witness must state his objection very carefully, for these
demurrers are held to strict rules, and are readily overruled if
they cover too much. 2 Atk. 524; 1 Y. & J. 32. See, in general,
as to demurrers,, Bac. Abr. Pleas, N; Com. Dig. Pleader, Q;
Saund. Rep. Index, tit. Demurrers; Lawes Civ. Pl. ch. 8; 1
Chit. Pl. 639-649 Bouv. Inst. Index, h. t.
DEMURRER BOOK) Eng. law. When an issue in law is formed, a
transcript is made upon paper of all the pleadings that have been
filed or delivered between the parties, which transcript is
called the demurrer book. Steph. Pl. 95. See Paper book.
DEMY SANKE or SANGUE. This is a barbarous corruption of, demi
sang, half-
blood. (q. v.)
DENARII. An ancient general term for any sort of pecunia
numerata, or ready money. The French use the word denier in the
same sense: payer de ses propres
deniers.
DENARIUS DEI. A term used in some countries to signify a
certain sum of money which is given by one of the contracting
parties to the other, as a sign of the completion of the
contract.
2. It does not however bind the parties he who received it may
return it in a limited time, or the other may abandon it, and
avoid the engagement.
3. It differs from arrhae in this, that the latter is a part of
the consideration, while the denarius dei is no part of it. 1
Duverg. n. 132 3 Duverg. n. 49; Repert. de Jur. verbo Denier a
Dieu.
DENIAL, pleading. To traverse the statement of the opposite
party a defence. See Defence; Traverse.
DENIER A DIEU, French law. It is a sum of money which the hirer
of a thing gives to the other party as evidence, or for the
consideration of the * contract, which either party may annul,
within twenty-four hours, the one who, giving the denier a dieu,
by demanding, and the other by returning it. It differs from
arrhae. Vide Arrhae; Denarius Dei.
DENIZATION, Eng. law.. The act by which a foreigner becomes a
subject of England; but he has not the rights either of a
natural born subject, nor of one who has become naturalized. Bac.
Ab. Aliens, B.
DENIZEN, English law. An alien born, who has obtained, ex
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donatione legis, letters patent to make him au English subject.
2. He is intermediate between a natural born subject and an
alien. He may. take lands by purchase or devise, which an alien
cannot, but he is incapable of taking by inheritance. 1 Bl. Com.
374. In the United States there is no such civil condition.
DENUNCIATION, crim. law. This term is used by the civilians to
signify the act by which au individual informs a public officer,
whose duty it is to prosecute offenders, that a crime has been
committed. It differs from a complaint. (q. v.) Vide 1 Bro. C. L.
447; 2 Id. 389; Ayl. Parer. 210, Poth. Proc. Cr. sect. 2, §2.
DEODAND, English law. This word is derived from Deo dandum, to
be given to God; and is used to designate the instrument,
whether it be an animal or inanimate thing, which has caused the
death of a man. 3 Inst. 57; Hawk. bk. 1, c. 8.
2. The deodand is forfeited to the king, and was formerly
applied to pious uses. But the presentment of a deodand by a
grand jury, under their general charge from the judge of assize,
is void. 1 Burr. Rep. 17.
DEPARTMENT. A portion of a country. In France, the country is
divided into departments, which are somewhat similar to the
counties in this country. The United States have been divided
into military departments, including certain portions of the
country. 1 Pet. 293.
2. By department is also meant the division of authority, as,
the department of state, of the navy, &c.
DEPARTMENT OF THE NAVY, government. The Act of April 80, 1798,
1 Story's Laws, 498, establishes an executive department, under
the denomination of the department of the navy, the chief officer
of which shall be called the secretary of the navy. (q. v.)
2. A principal clerk, and such other clerks as he shall think
necessary, shall be appointed by the secretary of the navy, who
shall be employed in such manner as he shall deem most expedient.
In case of vacancy in the office of the secretary, by removal or
otherwise, it shall be the duty of the principal clerk to take
charge and custody of all books, records, and documents of said
office. Id. s. 2
DEPARTMENT OF STATE, government. The laws of the United States
provide that there shall be an executive department, denominated
the department of state; and a principal officer therein, called
the secretary of state. (q. v.) Acts of July 27, 1789; September
15, 1789, s. 1. There shall be in such department an inferior
officer, to be appointed by the Secretary, and employed therein,
as he shall deem proper, to be called the chief clerk of the
department of state. (q. v.) Act of July 27, 1789, s. 2.
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2. He may employ, besides, one chief clerk, whose compensation
shall not exceed two thousand dollars. per annum; two clerks,
whose compensation shall not exceed one thousand six hundred
dollars; four clerks, whose compensation shall not exceed one
thousand four hundred dollars each; one clerk, whose
compensation shall not exceed one thousand dollars; two clerks,
whose compensation shall not exceed eight hundred dollars each;
one, messenger and assistant, at a compensation not exceeding one
thousand and fifty dollars per annum; one superintendent of the
patent office, whose compensation shall not exceed one thousand
five hundred dollars; and, in the patent office, one clerk,
whose compensation shall not exceed one thousand dollars; one
machinist, at a compensation not exceeding seven hundred dollars;
and one messenger, at a compensation not exceeding four hundred
dollars per annum. Act of May 26, 1824; Act of April 20, 1818,
s. 2.
3. By the Act of March 2, 1827, 3 Story's Laws, 2061, he is
authorized to employ, in the state department, one additional
clerk, whose compensation shall not exceed sixteen hundred
dollars; two additional clerks, whose compensation shall not
exceed one thousand dollars each; and one additional clerk for
the patent office, whose compensation shall not exceed eight
hundred dollars.
DFPARTMENT OP THE TREASURY OF THE UNITED STATES, government.
The department of the treasury is constituted of the following
officers, namely: the secretary of the treasury, (q. v.) the head
of the department, two comptrollers, five auditors, a treasurer,
a register, and a commissioner of the land office.
2. Each of these officers is required to perform certain
appropriate duties, in which they are assisted by numerous
clerks. They are prohibited from carrying on the business of
trade or commerce, from being the owners or part owners of any
sea vessel, from buying any public lands, from disposing or
purchasing any securities of any state, or of the United States,
from receiving or applying to their own use any emolument or gain
in transacting business in this department, other than what shall
be allowed by law, under the penalty of three thousand dollars,
and of being removed from office, and of being thereafter
incapable of holding any office under the United States. Gord.
Dig. 228 to 248
DEPARTMENT OF WAR, government. The act of August 7, 1789, 1
Story's Laws, 31, creates an executive department, to be
denominated the department of war; and there shall be a
principal officer therein, to be called the secretary for the
department of war. (q. v.) .
2. There shall be in the said department, an inferior officer,
to be appointed by the secretary, to be employed therein, and to
be called the chief clerk in the department of war, and who,
whenever the said principal officer shall be removed by the
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president, or in any other case of vacancy, shall, during such
vacancy, have the charge and custody of all records, books, and
papers, appertaining to the said department. Id.
DEPARTURE, pleading. Said to be when a party quits or departs
from the case, or defence, which he has first made, and has
recourse to another; it is when his replication or rejoinder
contains matter not pursuant to the declaration, or plea, and
which does not support and fortify it. Co. Litt. 304, a; 2
Saund. 84, a, n. (1); 2 Wils. 98; 1 Chit. Pl. 619. The
following example will illustrate what is a departure: if to
assumpsit, the defendant plead infancy, and to a replication of
necessaries, rejoin, duress, payment, release, &c., the rejoinder
is a departure , and a good cause of demurrer, because the
defendant quits or departs from the case or defence which he
first made, though either of these matters, newly pleaded, would
have been a good bar, if first pleaded as such.
2. A departure in pleading is never allowed, for the record
would, by such means, be spun out into endless prolixity; for he
who has departed from and relinquished his first plea, might
resort to a second, third, fourth, or even fortieth defence;
pleading would, by such means, become infinite. He who had a bad
cause, would never be brought to issue, and he who had a good
one, would never obtain the end of his suit. Summary on Pleading,
92; 2 Saund. 84, a. n. (l); 16 East, R. 39; 1 M. & S. 395
Coin. Dig. Pleader, F 7, 11; Bac. Abr. Pleas, L; Vin. Abr.
Departure; 1 Archb. Civ. Pl. 247, 253; 1 Chit. Pl. 618.
3. A departure is cured by a verdict in favor of him who makes
it, if the matter pleaded by way of departure is a sufficient
answer, in substance, to what is before pleaded by the opposite
party; that is, if it would have been sufficient, if pleaded in
the first instance. 2 Saund. 84 1 Lill. Ab. 444.
DEPARTURE, maritime law. A deviation from the course of the
voyage insured. 2. A departure is justifiable or not justifiable
it is justifiable ill consequence of the stress of weather, to
make necessary repairs, to succor a ship in distress, to avoid
capture, of inability to navigate the ship, mutiny of the crew,
or other compulsion. 1 Bouv. Inst. n. 1189.
DEPENDENCY. A territory distinct from the country in which the
supreme sovereign, power resides, but belonging rightfully to it,
and subject to the laws and regulations which the sovereign may
think proper to prescribe. It differs from a colony, because it
is not settled by the citizens of the sovereign or mother state;
and from possession, because it is held by other title than that
of mere conquest: for example, Malta was considered a dependency
of Great Britain in the year 1813. 3 Wash. C. C. R. 286. Vide act
of congress, March 1, 1809, commonly called the non-importation
law.
DEPENDENT CONTRACT. One which it is not the duty of the
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contractor to perform, until some obligation contained in the
same agreement has been performed by the other party. Ham. on
Part. 17, 29, 30, 109.
DEPONENT, witness. One who gives information, on oath or
affirmation, respecting some facts known to him, before a
magistrate he who makes a deposition.
DEPOPULATION. In its most proper signification, is the
destruction of the people of a country or place. This word is,
however, taken rather in a passive than an active one; we say
depopulation, to designate a diminution of inhabitants, arising
either from violent causes, or the want of multiplication. Vide
12 Co. 30.
DEPORTATION, civil law. Among the Romans a perpetual
banishment, depriving the banished of his rights as a citizen;
it differed from relegation (q. v.) and exile. (q. v.). 1 Bro.
Civ. Law, 125 note; Inst. 1, 12, 1 and 2; -Dig. 48, 22, 14, 1.
TO DEPOSE, practice. To make a deposition; to give testimony
as a witness. TO DEPOSE, rights. The act of depriving an
individual of a public employment or office, against his will.
Wolff, §1063. The term is usually applied to the deprivation of
all authority of a sovereign.
DEPOSIT, contracts. Usually defined to be a naked bailment of
goods to be kept for the bailor, without reward, and to be
returned when he shall require it. Jones' Bailm. 36, 117; 1
Bell's Com. 257. See also Dane's Abr. ch. 17, aft. 1, §3; Story
on Bailm. c. 2, §41. Pothier defines it to be a contract, by
which one of the contracting parties gives a thing to another to
keep, who is to do so gratuitously, and obliges himself to return
it when he shall be requested. Traite du Depot. See Code Civ.
tit. 11, c. 1, art. 1915; Louisiana Code, tit. 13, c. 1, art.
2897.
2. Deposits, in the civil law, are divisible into two kinds;
necessary and voluntary. A necessary deposit is such as arises
from pressing necessity; as, for instance, in case of a fire, a
shipwreck, or other overwhelming calamity; and thence it is
called miserabile depositum. Louis. Code 2935. A voluntary
deposit is such as arises without any such calamity, from the
mere consent or agreement of the parties. Dig. lib. 16, tit. 3,
§2.
3. This distinction was material in the civil law, in respect
to the remedy, for in voluntary deposits @ the action was only in
simplum; in the other in duplum, or two-fold, whenever the
depositary was guilty of any default. The common law has made no
such distinction, and, therefore, in a necessary deposit, the
remedy is limited to damages co-extensive with the wrong. Jones,
Bailm. 48.
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4. Deposits are again divided by the civil law into simple
deposits, and sequestrations; the former is when there is but
one party depositor (of whatever number composed), having a
common interest; the latter is where there are two or more
depositors, having each a different and adverse interest. See
Sequestration.
5. These distinctions give rise to very different
considerations in point of responsibility and rights. Hitherto
they do not seem to have been incorporated in the common law;
though if cases should arise, the principles applicable to them
would scarcely fail of receiving general approbation, at least,
so far as they affect the rights and responsibilities of the
parties. Cases of judicial sequestration and deposits, especially
in courts of chancery and admiralty, may hereafter require the
subject to be fully investigated. At present, there have been few
cases in which it has been necessary to consider upon whom the
loss should fall when the property has perished in the custody of
the law. Story on Bailm. §41-46.
6. There is another class of deposits noticed by Pothier, and
called by him irregular deposits. This arises when a party having
a sum of money which he doe's not think safe in his own hands;
confides it to another, who is to return him, not the same money
, but a like sum when he shall demand it. Poth. Traite du Depot,
ch. 3, §3. The usual deposit made by a person dealing with a bank
is of this nature. The depositor, in such case, becomes merely a
creditor of the depositary for the money or other thing which he
binds himself to return.
7. This species of deposit is also called an improper deposit,
to distinguish it from one that is regular and proper, and which
latter is sometimes called a special deposit. 1 Bell's Com.
257-8. See 4 Blackf. R. 395.
8. There is a kind of deposit which may, for distinction's
sake, be called a quasi deposit, which is governed, by the same
general rule as common deposits. It is when a party comes
lawfully to the possession of another person's property by
finding. Under such circumstances, the finder seems bound to the
same reasonable care of it as any voluntary depositary ex
contractu. Doct. & Stu. Dial. 2, ch. 38; Story on Bailm. §85;
and see Bac. Abr. Bailm. D. See further, on the subject of
deposits, Louis. Code, tit. 13; Bac. Abr. Bailment; Digest,
depositi vel contra; Code, lib. 4, tit. 34; Inst. lib. 3, tit.
15, §3; Nov. 73 and 78; Domat, liv. 1, tit. 7, et tom. 2, liv.
3, tit. 1, s. 5, n. 26; 1 Bouv. Inst. n. 1053, et seq.
DEPOSITARY, contracts. He with whom a deposit is confided or
made.
2. It is, the essence of the contract of deposits that it
should be gratuitous on the part 'of the depositary. 9 M. R. 470.
Being a bailee without reward, the depositary is bound to slight
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diligence only, and he is not therefore answerable except for
gross neglect. 1 Dane's Abr. c. 17, art. 2. But in every case
good faith requires that he should take reasonable care; and
what is reasonable care, must materially depend upon the nature
and quality of the thing, the circumstances under which it is
deposited, and sometimes upon the character and confidence, and
particular dealing of the parties. See 14 Serg. & Rawle, 275. The
degree of care and diligence is not altered by the fact, that the
depositary is the joint owner of the goods with the depositor;
for in such a case, if the possessor is guilty of gross
negligence, he will still be responsible, in the same manner as a
common depositary, having no interest in the thing. Jones' Bailm.
82, 83. As to the care which. a depositary is bound to use, see 2
Ld. Raym. 900, 914; 1 Ld. Raym. 655; 2 Kent's Com. 438; 17
Mass. R. 479, 499; 4 Burr.. 2298; 14 Serg. & Rawle, 275;
Jonees' Bailm. 8; Story on Bailm. §63, 64.
3. The depositary is bound to return the deposit in individuo,
and in the same state in which he received it; if it is lost, or
injured, or spoiled, by his fraud or gross negligence, he is
responsible to the extent of the loss or injury. Jones' Bailm.
36, 46, 120; 17 Mass. R. 479; 2 Hawk. N. Car. R. 145; 1 Dane's
Abr. c. 17, art. 1 and 2. He is also bound to restore, not only
the thing deposited, but any increase or profits which may have
accrued from it; if an animal deposited bear young, the latter
are to be delivered to the owner. Story on Bailm. §99.
4. In general it may be laid down that a depositary has no,
right to use the thing deposited. Bac. Abr. Bailm. D; Jones'
Bailm. 81, 82; 1 Dane's Abr. c. 17, art. 11, §2. But this
proposition must be received with many qualifications. There are
certain cases, in which the use of the thing may be necessary for
the due preservation of the deposit. There are others, again,
where it would be mischievous; and others again, where it would
be, if not beneficial, at least indifferent. Jones' Bailm. 81,
82; Owen's R. 123, 124; 2 Salk. 522; 2 Kent's Com. 450. The
best general rule on the subject, is to consider whether there
may or may not be an implied consent, on the part of the owner,
to the use. If the use would be for the benefit of the deposit,
the assent of the owner may well be presumed; if to his injury,
or perilous, it ought not to be presumed; if the use would be
indifferent, and other circumstances, do not incline either way,
the use may be deemed not allowable. Jones' Bailm. 80, 81; Story
on Bailm. §90; 1 Bouv. Inst. n. 1008, et seq.
DEPOSITION, evidence. The testimony of a witness reduced to
writing, in due form of law, taken by virtue of a commission or
other authority of a competent tribunal.
2. Before it is taken, the witness ought to be sworn or
affirmed to declare the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but
the truth. It should properly be written by the commissioner
appointed to take it, or by the witness himself; 3 Penna. R. 41;
or by one not interested in the matter in dispute, who is
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properly authorized by the commissioner. 8 Watts, R. 406, 524. It
ought to answer all the interrogatories, and be signed by the
witness, when he can write, and by the commissioner. When the
witness cannot write, it ought to be so stated, and he should
make his mark or cross.
3. Depositions in criminal cases cannot be taken without the
consent of the defendant. Vide, generally, 1 Phil. Ev. 286; 1
Vern. 413, note; Ayl. Pand. 206; 2 Supp. to Ves. jr. 309; 7
Vin. Ab. 553; 12 Vin. Ab. 107; Dane's Ab. Index, h. t.; Com.
Dig. Chancery, P 8, T 4, T 5; Com. Dig. Testmoigne, C 4.
4. The Act of September 24, 1789, s. 30, 1 Story's L. U. S. 64,
directs that when the testimony of any person shall be necessary
in any civil cause depending in any district, in any court of the
United States, who shall live at a greater distance from the
place of trial than one hundred miles, or is bound on a voyage to
sea, or is about to go out of the United States, or out of such
district, and to a greater distance from the place of trial than
as aforesaid, before the time of trial, or is ancient, or very
infirm, the deposition of such person may be taken de bene esse,
before any justice or judge of any of the courts of the United
States, or before any chancellor, justice, or judge of a supreme
or superior court, mayor, or chief magistrate of a city, or judge
of a county court or court of common pleas of any of the United
States, not being of counsel or attorney to either of the
parties, or interested in the event of the cause; provided that
a notification from the magistrate before whom the deposition is
to be taken, to the adverse party, to be present at the taking of
the same, and to put interrogatories, if he think fit, be first
made out and served ou the adverse party, or his attorney, as
either may be nearest, if either is within one hundred miles of
the place of such caption, allowing time for their attendance
after being notified, not less than at the rate of one day,
Sundays exclusive, for every twenty miles travel . And in causes
of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction, or other causes of
seizure, when a libel shall be filed, in which an adverse party
is not named, and depositions of persons, circumstanced as
aforesaid, shall be taken before a claim be put in, the like
notification, as aforesaid, shall be given to the person having
the agency or possession of the property libelled at the time of
the capture or seizure of the same, if known to the libellant.
And every person deposing as aforesaid, shall be carefully
examined and cautioned, and sworn or affirmed to testify the
whole truth, and shall subscribe the testimony by him or her
given, after the same shall be reduced to writing, which shall be
done only by the magistrate taking the deposition, or by the
deponent in his presence. And the deposition so taken shall be
retained by such magistrate, until he deliver the same with his
own, hand into the court for which they are taken, or shall,
together with a certificate of the reasons as aforesaid, of their
being taken, and of the notice, if any given, to the adverse
party, be by him, the said magistrate, sealed up and directed to
such court, and remain under his seal until opened in court. And
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any person may be compelled to appear and depose as aforesaid, in
the same manner as to appear and testify in court. And in the
trial of any cause of admiralty or maritime jurisdiction in a
district court, the decree in which may be appealed from, if
either party shall suggest to and satisfy the court, that
probably it will not be in his power to produce the witnesses,
there testifying, before the circuit court, should an appeal be
had, and shall move that their testimony shall be taken down in
writing, it shall be so done by the clerk of the court. And if an
appeal be had, such testimony may be used on the trial of the
same, if it shall appear to the satisfaction of the court, which
shall try the appeal, that the witnesses are then dead, or gone
out of the United States, or to, a greater distance than as
aforesaid, from the place where the court is sitting; or that,
by reason of age, sickness, bodily infirmity, or imprisonment,
they are unable to travel or, appear at court, but not otherwise.
And unless the same shall be made to appear on the trial of any
cause, with respect to witnesses whose depositions may have been
taken therein, such depositions shall not be admitted or used in
the cause. Provided, that nothing herein shall be construed to
prevent any court of the United States from granting a dedimus
potestatem, to take depositions according to common usage, when
it may be necessary to prevent a failure or delay of justice;
which power they shall severally possess nor to extend to
depositions taken in perpetuam rei memoriam, which, if they
relate to matters that may be cognizable in any court of the
United States, a circuit court, on application thereto made as a
court of equity, may, according to the usages in chancery, direct
to be taken.
5. The Act of January 24, 1827, 3 Story's L. U. S . 2040,
authorizes the clerk of any court of the United States within
which a witness resides or where he is found, to issue a subpoena
to compel the attendance of such witness, and a neglect of the
witness to attend may be punished by the court whose clerk has
issued the subpoena, as for a contempt. And when papers are
wanted by the parties litigant, the judge of the court within
which they are, may issue a subpoena duces tecum, and enforce
obedience by punishment as for a contempt. For the form and style
of depositions, see Gresl. Eq. Ev. 77.
DEPOSITION, eccl. law. The act of depriving a clergyman, by a
competent tribunal, of his clerical orders, to punish him for
some offence, and to prevent his acting in future in his clerical
character. Ayl. Par. 206.
DEPOSITOR, contracts. He who makes a deposit.
2. He is generally entitled to receive the deposit from the
depositary, but to this rule there are exceptions; as. when the
depositor at the time of making the deposit had no title to the
property deposited, and the owner claims it from the depositary,
the depositor cannot recover it; and for this reason, that he
can never be in a better situation than the owner. 1 Barn. & Ald.
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450; 5 Taunt. 759. As to the place where the depositor is
entitled to receive his deposit, see Story on Bailm. §117-120 1
Bouv. Inst. n. 1063.
DEPREDATION, French law. The pillage which is made of the goods
of a decedent. Ferr. Mod. h. t.
DEPRIVATION, ecclesiastical Punishment. A censure by which a
clergyman is deprived of his parsonage, vicarage, or other
ecclesiastical promotion or dignity. Vide Ayliffe's Parerg. 206;
1 Bl. Com. 393.
DEPUTY. One authorized by an officer to exercise the office or
right which the officer possesses, for and in place of the
latter.
2. In general, ministerial officers can appoint deputies; Com.
Dig. Officer, D 1; unless the office is to be exercised by the
ministerial officer in person; and where the office partakes of
a judicial and ministerial character, although a deputy may be
made for the performance of ministerial acts, one cannot be made
for the performance of a judicial act; a sheriff cannot
therefore make a deputy to hold an inquisition, under a writ of
inquiry, though he may appoint a deputy to serve a writ.,
3. In general, a deputy has power to do every act which his
principal might do but a deputy cannot make a deputy.
4. A deputy should always act in the name of his principal. The
principal is liable for the deputy's acts performed by him as
such, and for the neglect of the deputy; Dane's Ab. vol. 3, c.
76, a. 2; and the deputy is liable himself to the person injured
for his own tortious acts. Dane's Ab. Index, h. t.; Com. Dig.
Officer, D; Viscount, B. Vide 7 Vin. Ab. 556 Arch. Civ. Pl. 68;
16 John. R. 108.
DEPUTY OF THE ATTORNEY GENERAL. An officer appointed by the
attorney general, who is to hold his office during the pleasure
of the latter, and whose duty it is to perform, within a
specified district, the duties of the attorney general. He must
be a member of the bar. In Pennsylvania, by an act of assembly,
passed May 3, 1850, district attorneys are elected by the people,
who are required to perform the duties which, before that act,
were performed by deputies of the attorney general.
DEPUTY DISTRICT ATTORNEYS. The Act of Congress of March 3, 1815,
2 Story L. U. S. 1530, authorizes and directs the district
attorneys of the United States to appoint by warrant, an attorney
as their substitute or deputy in all cases when necessary to sue
or prosecute for the United States, in any of the state or county
courts, by that act invested with certain jurisdiction, within
the sphere of whose jurisdiction the said district attorneys do
not themselves reside or practice; and the said substitute or
deputy shall be sworn or affirmed to the faithful execution of
his duty.
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DERELICT, common law. This term is applied in the common law in
a different sense from what it bears in the civil law. In the
former it is applied to lands left by the sea.
2. When so left by degrees the derelict land belongs to the
owner of the soil adjoining but when the sea retires suddenly, it
belongs to the government. 2 Bl. Com. 262 1 Bro. Civ. Law, 239;
1 Sumn. 328, 490 1 Gallis. 138; Bee, R. 62, 178, 260; Ware, R.
332.
DERELICTO, civil law. Goods voluntarily abandoned by their
owner; he must, however, leave them, not only sine spe
revertendi, but also sine animzo revertendi; his intention to
abandon them may be inferred by the great length of time during
which he may have been out of possession, without any attempt to
regain them. 1 Bro. Civ. Law, 239; 2 Bro. Civ. Law, 51; Wood's
Civ. Law, 156; 19 Amer. Jur. 219, 221, 222 Dane's Ab. Index, h.
t.; 1 Ware's R. 4 1.
DERIVATIVE. Coming from another; taken from something
preceding, secondary; as derivative title, which is that
acquired from another person. There is considerable difference
between an original and a derivative title. When the acquisition
is original, the right thus acquired to the thing becomes
property, which must be unqualified and unlimited, and since no
one but the occupant has any right to the thing, he must have the
whole right of disposing of it. But with regard to derivative
acquisition, it may be otherwise, for the person from whom the
thing is acquired may not have an unlimited right to it, or he
may convey or transfer it with certain reservations of right.
Derivative title must always be by contract.
2. Derivative conveyances are, those which presuppose some
other precedent conveyance, and serve only to enlarge, confirm,
alter, restrain, restore, or transfer the interest granted by
such original conveyance, 3 Bl. Com. 321.
DERIVATIVE POWER. An authority by which one person enables
another to do an act for him. See Powers.
DEROGATION, civil law. The partial abrogation of a law; to
derogate from a law is to enact something which is contrary to
it; to abrogate a law is' to abolish it entirely. Dig. lib. 50,
t. 17, 1. 102. See Abrogation.
DESCENDANTS. Those who have issued from an individual, and
include his children, grandchildren, and their children to the
remotest degree. Ambl. 327 2 Bro. C. C. 30; Id. 230 3 Bro. C. C.
367; 1 Rop. Leg. 115; 2 Bouv. n. 1956.
2. The descendants form what is called the direct descending
line. Vide Line. The term is opposed to that of ascendants. (q.
v.)
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3. There is a difference between the number of ascendants and
descendants which a man may have every one his the same order of
ascendants, though they may not be exactly alike as to numbers,
because some may be descended from a common ancestor. In the line
of descendants they fork differently, according to the number of
children and continue longer or shorter as generations continue
or cease to exist. Many families become extinct, while others
continue; the line of descendants is therefore diversified in
each family.
DESCENDER. In the descent; as formedon in the descender. Bac.
Ab. Formedon, A 1. Vide Formedon.
DESCENT. Hereditary succession. Descent is the title, whereby a
person, upon the death of his ancestor, acquires the estate of
the latter, as his heir at law: This manner of acquiring title is
directly opposed to that of purchase. (q. v.) 2 Bouv. Inst. n.
1952, et seq.
2. It will be proper to consider, 1. What kind of property
descends; and, 2. The general rules of descent.
3. - §1. All real estate, and all freehold of inheritance in
land, descend to the heir. And, as being accessory to the land
and making a part of the inheritance, fixtures, and emblements,
and all things annexed to, or connected with the land, descend
with it to the heir. Terms for years, and other estates less than
freehold, pass to the executor, and are not subjects of descent.
It is a rule at common law that no one can inherit read estate
unless he was heir to the person last seised. This does not apply
as a general rule in the United States. Vide article Possessio
fratris.
4. - §2. The general rules of the law of descent. 1. It is a
general rule in the law of inheritance, that if a person owning
real estate, dies seised, or as owner, without devising the same,
the estate shall descend to his descendants in the direct line of
lineal descent, and if there be but one person, then to him or
her alone; and if more than one person, and all of equal degree
of consanguinity to the ancestor, then the inheritance shall
descend to the several persons as tenants in common in equal
parts, however remote from the intestate the common degree of
consanguinity may be. This rule is in favor of the equal claims
of descending line, in the same degree, without distinction of
sex, and to the exclusion of all other claimants. The following
example will, illustrate it; it consists of three distinct
cases: 1. Suppose Paul shall die seised of real estate, leaving
two sons and a daughter, in this case the estate would descend to
them in equal parts; but suppose, 2. That instead of children,
he should leave several grandchildren, two of them the children
of his son Peter, and one the son of his son John, these will
inherit the estate in equal proportions; or, 3. Instead of
children and grandchildren, suppose Paul left ten great
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grandchildren, one the lineal descendant of his son John, and
nine the descendants of his son Peter; these, like the others,
would partake equally of the inheritance as tenants in common.
According to 'Chancellor Kent, this rule prevails in all the
United States, with this variation, that in Vermont the male
descendants take double the share of females; and in South
Carolina, the widow takes one-third of the estate in fee; and in
Georgia, she tales a child's share in fee, if there be any
children, and, if none, she then takes in each of those states, a
moiety of the estate. In North and South Carolina, the claimant
takes in all cases, per stirpes, though standing in the same
degree. 4 Kent, Com. 371; Reeves' Law of Desc. passim; Griff.
Law Reg., answers to the 6th interr. under the head of each
state. In Louisiana the rule is, that in all cases in which
representation is admitted, the partition is made by roots; if
one root has produced several branches, the subdivision is also
made by root in each branch, and the members of the branch take
between them by heads. Civil Code, art. 895.
5. - 2. It is also a rule, that if a person dying seised, or as
owner of the land, leaves lawful issue of different degrees of
consanguinity, the inheritance shall descend to the children and
grandchildren of the ancestor, if any be living, and to the issue
of such children and grandchildren as shall be dead, and so on to
the remotest degree, as tenants in common; but such
grandchildren and their descendants, shall inherit only such
share as their parents respectively would have inherited if
living. This rule may be illustrated by the following example: 1.
Suppose Peter, the ancestor, had two children; John, dead,
(represented in the following diagram by figure 1,) and Maria,
living (fig. 2); John had two children, Joseph, living, (fig.
3,) and Charles, dead (fig. 4); Charles had two children,
Robert, living, (fig. 5,) and James, dead (fig. 6.); James had
two children, both living, Ann, (fig. 7,) and William, (fig. 8.)
Peter (0) the ancestor.
|
+---------------------------------------+
| |
(1) John (2) Maria
|
+-------------------------+
| |
(3) Joseph (4) Charles
|
+---------------------+
| |
(5) Robert (6) James
|
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+---------------------+
| |
(7) Ann (8) William
In this case Maria would inherit one-half; Joseph, the son of
John, one-half of the half, or quarter of the whole; Robert,
one-eighth of the whole; and Ann and William, each one-sixteenth
of the whole, which they would hold as tenants in common in these
proportions. This is called inheritance per stirpes, by roots,
because the heirs take in such portions only as their immediate
ancestors would have inherited if living.
6. - 3. When the owner of land dies without lawful issue,
leaving parents, it is the rule in some of the states, that the
inheritance shall. ascend to them, first to the father, and then
to the mother, or jointly to both, under certain regulations
prescribed by statute.
7. - 4. When the intestate dies without issue or parents, the
estate descends to his brothers and sisters and their
representatives. When there are such relations, and all of equal
degree of consanguinity to the intestate, the inheritance
descends to them in equal parts, however remote from the
intestate the common degree of consanguinity may be. When all the
heirs are brothers and sisters, or all of them nephews and
nieces, they take equally. When some are dead who leave issue,
and some are living, then those who are living take the share
they would have taken if all had been living, and the descendants
of those who are dead inherit only the share which their
immediate parents would have received if living. When the direct
lineal descendants stand in equal degrees, they take per capita,
by the head, each one full share; when, on the contrary, they
stand in different degrees of consanguinity to the common
ancestor, they take per stirpes, by roots, by right of
representation. It is nearly a general rule, that the ascending
line, after parents, is postponed to the collateral line of
brothers and sisters. Considerable difference exists in the laws
of the several states, when the next of kin are nephews and
nieces, and uncles and aunts claim as standing in the same
degree. In many of the states, all these relations take equally
as being next of kin; this is the rule in the states of New
Hampshire, Vermont, (subject to the claim of the males to a
double portion as above stated,) Rhode Island, North Carolina,
and Louisiana. In Alabama, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia,
Indiana, Illinois, Kentucky, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts,
Mississippi, Missouri, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvaaia,
South Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia, on the contrary, nephews
and nieces take in exclusion of uncles and aunts, though they be
of equal degree of consanguinity to the intestate. In Alabama,
Connecticut, Georgia, Maryland, New Hampshire, Ohio, Rhode
Island, and Vermont, there is no representation among collaterals
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after the children of brothers and sisters in Delaware, none
after the grandchildren. of brothers and sisters. In Louisiana,
the ascending line must be exhausted before the estate passes to
collaterals, Code, art. 910. In North Carolina, claimants take
per stirpes in every case, though they stand in equal degree of
consanguinity to the common ancestor. As to the distinction
between whole and half blood, vide Half blood.
8. - 5. Chancellor Kent lays it down as a general rule in the
American law of descent, that when the intestate has left no
lineal descendants, nor parents, nor brothers, nor sisters, or
their descendants, that the grandfather takes the estate, before
uncles and aunts, as being nearest of kin to the intestate.
9. - 6. When the intestate dies leaving no lineal descendants,
nor parents, nor brothers, nor sisters, nor any of their
descendants, nor grand parents, as a general rule, it is
presumed, the inheritance descends to the brothers and sisters,
of both the intestate's parents, and to their descendants,
equally. When they all stand in equal degree to the intestate,
they take per capita, and when in unequal degree, per stirpes. To
this general rule, however, there are sligbt variations in some
of the states, as, in Now York, grand parents do not take before
collaterals.
10. - 7. When the inheritance came to the intestate on the part
of the father, then the brothers and sisters of the father and
their descendant's shall have the preference, and, in default of
them, the estate shall descend to the brothers and sisters of the
mother, and their descendants and where the inheritance comes to
the intestate on the part of his mother, then her brothers and
sisters, and their descendants, have a preference, and in default
of them, the brothers and sisters on the side of the father, and
their descendants, inherit. This is the rule in Connecticut, New
Jersey, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, Rhode island, Tennessee,
and Virginia. In Pennsylvania, it is provided by act of assembly,
April 8, 1833, that no person who is not of the blood of the
ancestors or other relations from whom any real estate descended,
or by whom it was given or devised to the intestate, shall in any
of the cases before mentioned, take any estate of inheritance
therein, but such real estate subject to such life estate as may
be in existence by virtue of this act, shall pass to and vest in
such other persons as would be entitled by this act, if the
persons not of the blood of such ancestor, or other relation, had
never existed, or were dead at the decease of the intestate. In
some of the states there is perhaps no distinction as to the
descent, whether they have been acquired by purchase or by
descent from an ancestor.
11. - 8. When there is a failure of heirs under the preceding
rules, the inheritance descends" to the remaining next of kin of
the intestate, according to the rules in the statute of
distribution of the personal estate, subject to the doctrine in
the preceding rules in the different states as to the half blood,
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to ancestral estates, and as to the equality of distribution.
This rule prevails in several states, subject to some
peculiarities in the local laws of descent, which extend to this
rule.
12. It is proper before closing this article, to remind the
reader, that in computing the degrees of consanguinity, the civil
law is followed generally in this country, except in Norrh
Carolina, where the rules of the common law in their application
to descents are adopted, to ascertain the degree of
consanguinity. Vide the articles Branch; Consanguinity; Degree;
Line.
DESCRIPTIO PERSONAE. Description of the person. In wills, it
frequently happens, that the word heir is used as a descriptio
personae; it is then a sufficient designation of the person.
DESCRIPTION. A written account of the state and condition of
personal property, titles, papers, and the like. It is a kind of
inventory, (q. v.) but is more particular in ascertaining the
exact condition of the property, and is without any appraisement
of it.
2. When goods are found in the possession of a person accused
of stealing them, a description ought to be made of them. Merl.
Rep. h. t.
3. A description is less perfect than a definition. (q. v.) It
gives some knowledge of the accidents and qualities of a thing;
for example, plants, fruits, and animals, are described by their
shape, bulk, color, and the like accidents. Ayl. Pand. 60.
4. Description may also be of a person, as description of a
legatee. 1 Roper on Leg. chap. 2.
DESERTER. One who abandons his post; as, a soldier who
abandons the public service without leave; or a sailor who
abandons a ship when he has engaged to serve.
DESERTION, crim. law. An offence which consists in the
abandonment of the public service, in the army or navy, without
leave.
2. The Act of March 16, 1802, s. 19, enacts, that if any
non-commissioned officer, musician, or private, shall desert the
service of the United Staies, he shall, in addition to the
penalties mentioned in the rules and articles of war, be liable
to serve for and during such period as shall, with the time he
may have served previous to his desertion, amount to the full
term of his enlistment; and such soldier shall and may be tried
by a court-martial, and punished, although the term of his
enlistment may have elapsed previous to his being apprehended or
tried.
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3. By the articles of war, it is enacted, that "any
non-commissioned officer or soldier who shall, without leave from
his commanding officer, absent himself from his troop, company,
or detachment, shall, upon being convicted thereof, be punished,
according to the nature of his offence, at the discretion of a
court-martial." Art. 21.
4. By the articles for the government of the navy, art. 16, it
is enacted, that "if any person in the navy shall desert to an
enemy, or rebel, he shall suffer death;" and by art. 17, "if any
person in the navy shall desert, or shall entice others to
desert, he shall suffer death, or such other punishmemt as a
court-martial shall adjudge."
DESERTION, torts. The act by which a man abandons his wife and
children, or either of them.
2. On proof of desertion, the courts possess the power to grant
the 'Wife, or such children as have been deserted, alimony (q.
v.)
DESERTION, MALICIOUS. The act of a hushand or wife, in leaving
a consort, without just cause, for the purpose of causing a
perpetual separation. Vide Abandonment, malicious.
DESERTION OF SEAMEN, contracts. The abandonment, by a sailor,
of a ship or vessel, in which he engaged to perform a voyage,
before the expiration of his time, and without leave.
2. Desertion, without just cause, renders the sailor liable, on
his shipping articles, for damages, and will, besides, work a
forfeiture of his wages previously earned.
3 Kent, Com. 155. It has been decided, in England, that leaving
the ship before the completion of the voyage is not desertion, in
the case, 1. Of the seaman's entering into the public service,
either voluntarily or by impress; and 2. When he is compelled to
leave it by the inhuman treatment of the captain. 2 Esp. R. 269;
1 Bell's Com. 514, 5th ed.; 2 Rob. Adm. R. 232.
DESIGNATIO PERSONAE. The persons described in a contract as
being parties to it.
2. In all contracts, under seal, there must be some designatio
personae. In general, the names of the parties,appear in the body
of the deed, "between A B of, &c., of the one part, and C D of,
&c., of the other part," being the common formula. But there is a
sufficient designation and description of the party to be
charged, if his name is written at the foot of the instrument.
3. A deed alleged to have been made between plaintiff and
defendant began as follows: "Tis agreed that a gray nag bought of
A B by C D shall run twenty five miles in two hours for X, In
witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hands and seals." The
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plaintiff and defendant subscribed their names at the bottom of
the writing, and afterwards sealed and delivered the document as
their deed. Held, that the omission to state the names of the
contracting parties in the body of the instrument, was supplied
by the signatures at the bottom, and it sufficiently appeared
whose deed it was. 1 Raym. 2; 1 Salk. 214 2 B. & P. 339.
4. When a person is described in the body of the instrument by
the name of James, and he signs the name of John, on being sued
by the latter name he cannot deny it. 3 Taunt. 505; Cro. Eliz.
897, n. (a.) Vide 11 Ad. & Ell. 594; 3 P. & D. 271.
DESIGNATION, wills. The expression used by a testator, instead
of the name of the person or the thing he is desirous to name;
for example, a legacy to. the eldest son of such a person, would
be a designation of the legatee. Vide 1 Rop. Leg. ch. 2.
2. A bequest of the farm which the testator bought of such a
person; or of the picture he owns, painted by such an artist,
would be a designation of the thing devised or bequeathed.
DESPACHEURS. The name given, in some countries, to persons
appointed to settle cases of average. Ord. Hamh. t. 21, art. 10.
DESPATCHES. Official communications of official Persons, on the
affairs of government.
2. In general, the bearer of despatches is entitled to all the
facilities that can be given him, in his own country, or in a
neutral state; but a neutral cannot, in general, be the bearer
of despatches of one of the belligerent parties. 6 C. Rob. 465
see 2 Dodson, 54; Edw. 274.
DESPERATE. Of which there is no hope.
2. This term is used frequently, in making an inventory of a
decedent's effects, when a debt is considered so bad that there
is no hope of recovering it. It is then called a desperate debt,
and, if it be so returned, it will be prima facie, considered as
desperate. See Toll. Ex. 248 2 Williams, Ex. 644; 1 Chit. Pr.
580. See Sperate.
DESPITUS. This word signifies, in our ancient law books, a
contemptible person. Flet. lib. 4, c. 5, §4. The English word
despite is derived from it, which signifies spite or contempt
against one's will - defiance with contempt, or contempt of
opposition.
DESPOT. This word, in its most simple and original acceptation,
signifies master and supreme lord; it is synonymous with
monarch; but, taken in bad part, as it is usually employed, it
signifies a tyrant. In some states, despot is the title given to
the sovereign, as king is given in others. Encyc. Lond.
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DESPOTISM, government. That abuse of government, where the
sovereign power is not divided, but united in the hands of a
single man, whatever may be his official title. It is not,
properly, a form of government. Toull. Dr. Civ. Fr. tit. prel. n.
32; Rutherf Inst. b. 1, c. 20, §1. Vide Tyranny; Tyrant.
DESRENABLE, Law French. Unreasonable. Britt. c. 121.
DESTINATION. The application which the testator directs shall
be made of the legacy he gives; for example, when a testator
gives to a hospital a sum of money, to be applied in erectiug
buildings, he is said to give a destination to the legacy.
Destination also signifies the intended application of a thing.
Mill stones, for example, taken out of a mill to be picked, and
to be returned, have a destination, and are considered as real
estate, although detached from the freehold. Heir looms, (q. v.)
although personal chattels, are, by their destination, considered
real estate and money agreed or directed to be laid out in land,
is treated as real property. Newl. on Contr. ch. 8; Fonbl. Eq.
B. 1, c. 6, §9; 3 Wheat. R. 577; 2 Bell's Com. 2; Ersk. Inst.
2 §14. Vide Mill.
2. When the owner of two adjoining houses uses, during his
life, the property in such a manner as to make one property
subject to the other, and devises one property to one person, and
the other to another, this is said not to be an easement or
servitude, but a destination by the former owner. Lois des Bat.
partie 1, c. 4, art. 3, §3; 5 Har. & John. 82. See Dedication.
DESTINATION, com. law. The port at which a ship is to end her
voyage is called her port of destination. Pard. n. 600.
DESUETUDE. This term is applied to laws which have become
obsolete. (q.v.)
DETAINER. 1. The act of keeping a person against his will, or
of keeping goods or property. All illegal detainers of the person
amount to false imprisonment, and may be remedied by habeas
corpus.
2. - 2. A detainer or detention of goods is either lawful or
unlawful; when lawful, the party having possession of them
cannot be deprived of it. The detention may be unlawful, although
the original taking was lawful; as when goods were distrained
for rent, and the rent was -afterwards paid; or when they 'Were
pledged, and the money borrowed, and interest were afterwards
paid; in these, and the like cases, the owner should make a
demand, (q. v.) and if the possessor refuse to restore them,
trover, detinue, or replevin will lie, at the option of the
plaintiff.
3. - 3. There may also be a detainer of land and this is either
lawful and peaceable, or unlawful and forcible. 1. The detainer
is lawful where the entry has been lawful, and the estate is held
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by virtue of some right. 2. It is unlawful and forcible, where
the entry has been unlawful, and with force, and it is retained,
by force, against right; or even when the entry has been
peaceable and lawful, if the detainer be by force, and against
right; as, if a tenant at will should detain with force, after
the will has determined, he will be guilty of a forcible
detainer. Hawk. P. C. ch. 64, s. 22; 2 Chit. Pr. 288; Com. Dig,
B. 2; 8 Cowen, 216; 1 Hall, 240; 4 John. 198; 4 Bibb, 501. A
forcible detainer is a distinct offence from a forcible entry. 8
Cowen, 216. See Forcible entry and detainer.
4. - 4. A writ or instrument, issued or made by a competent
officer, authorizing the keeper of a prison to keep in his
custody a person therein named. A detainer may be lodged against.
one within the walls of a prison, on what account soever he is
there. Com. Dig. Process, E 3 b.
DETENTION. The act of retaining a person or property, and
preventing the removal of such person or property.
2. The detention may be occasioned by accidents, as, the
detention of a ship by calms, or by ice; or it may, be hostile,
as the detention of persons or ships in a foreign country, by
order of the government. In general, the detention of a ship does
not change the nature of the contract, and therefore, sailors
will be entitled to their wages during the time of the detention.
1 Bell's Com. 517, 519, 5th ed.; Mackel. Man. §210.
3. A detention is legal when the party has a right to the
property, and has come lawfully into possession. It is illegal
when the taking was unlawful, as is the case of forcible entry
and detainer, although the party may have a right of possession;
but, in some, cases, the (retention may be lawful, although the
taking may have been unlawful. 3 Penn. St. R. 20. When the taking
was legal, the detention may be illegal; as, if one borrow a
horse, to ride from A to B, and afterwards detain him from the
owner, After demand, such detention is unlawful, and the owner
may either retake his property, or have an actiqn of replevin or
detinue. 1 Chit. Pr. 135. In some cases, the detention becomes
criminal although the taking was lawful, as in embezzlement.
DETERMINABLE. What may come to an end, by the happening of a
contingency; as a determnable fee. See 2 Bouv. Inst. n. 1695.
DETERMINABLE FEE. Also called a qualified or base fee, is one
which has a quality subjoined to it, and which must be determined
whenever the qualification annexed to it is at in end. A
limitation to a man and his heirs on the part of his father,
affords an example of this species of estate. Litt. §254; Co.
Litt. 27 a, 220; 1 Prest. on Estates, 449; 2 Bl. Com. 109;
Cruise, tit 1, §82; 2 Bouv. Inst; n., 1695.
DETERMINATE. That which is ascertained; what is particularly
designated; as, if I sell you my horse Napoleon, the article
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sold is here determined. This is very different from a contract
by which I would have sold you a horse, without a particular
designation of any horse. 1 Bouv. Inst. n. 947, 950.
DETERMINATION. The end, the conclusion, of a right or
authority; as, the determination of a lease. 1 Com. Dig. Estates
by Grant, G 10, 11, and 12.. The determination of an authority is
the end of the authority given; the end of the return day of a
writ determines the authority of the sheriff; the death of the
principal determines the authority of a mere attorney. By
determination is also understood the decision or judgment of a
court of justice.
DETINET. He detains. Vide Debet et Detinet, and Detinuit.
DETINUE, remedies. The name of an action for the recovery of a
personal chattel in specie. 3 Bl. Com. 152; 3 Bouv. Inst. n.
3472; 1 J. J. Marsh. 500.
2. This action may be considered, 1. With reference to the
nature of the thing to be recovered. 2. The plaintiff's interest
therein. 3. The injury. 4. The pleadings. 5. The judgment.
3.- 1. The goods which it is sought to recover, must be capable
of being distinguished from all others, as a particular horse, a
cow, &c., but not for a bushel of grain. Com. Dig. Detinue, B, C;
2 Bl. Com. 152; Co. Litt. 286 b; Bro. Det. 51. Detinue cannot
be maintained where the property sued for had ceased to exist
when the suit was commenced. 2 Dana, 332. See 5 Stew. & Port.
123; 1 Ala. R. 203.
4. - 2. To support this action, the plaintiff must have a right
to immediate possession, although he never had actual possession;
a reversioner cannot, therefore, maintain it. A bailee, who has
only a special property, may nevertheless support it when he
delivered the goods to the defendant, or they were taken out of
the bailee's custody. 2 Saund. 47, b, c, d Bro. Ab. h. t.; 9
Leigh, R. 158; 1 How. Miss. R. 315; 5 How. Miss. R. 742; 4 B.
Munr. 365.
5. - 3. The gist of the action is the wrongful detainer, and
not the original taking. The possession must have been acquired
by the defendant by lawful means, as by delivery, bailment, or.
finding, and not tortiously. Bro. Abr. ])et. 53, 36, 21 1 Misso.
R. 749. But a demand is not requisite, except for the purpose of
entitling the plaintiff to damages for the detention between the
time of the demand and that of the commencement of the action. 1
Bibb, 186; 4 Bibb, 340; 1 Misso. 9; 3 Litt. 46.
6. - 4. The plaintiff may declare upon a bailment or a trover;
but the practice, by the ancient common law, was to allege,
simply, that the goods came to the hands, &c., of the defendant
without more. Bro. Abr. Det. 10, per Littleton; 33 H. VI. 27.
The trover, or finding, when alleged, was not traversable, except
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when the defendant alleged delivery over of a chattel actually
found to a third person, before action brought, in excuse of the
detinue. Bro. Abr. Det. 1, 2. Nor is the bailment traversable,
but the defendant must answer to the detinue. Bro. Abr. Det.
50-1. In describing the things demanded, much certainty is
requisite, owing to the nature of the execution. A declaration
for "a red cow with a white face," is not supported by proof that
the cow was a yellow. or sorrel cow. 1 Scam. R. 206. The general
issue is non detinet, and under it special matter may be given in
evidence. Co. Litt. 283.
7. - 5. In this action the defendant frequently prayed
garnishment of a third person, whom he alleged owned or had an
interest in the thing demanded; but this he could not do without
confessing the possession of the thing de-manded, and made
privity of bailment. Bro. Abr. Garnishment, 1; Interpleader, 3.
If the prayer of garnishment was allowed, a sci. fac. issued
against the person named as garnishee. If he made default, the
plaintiff recovered against, the defendant the chattel demanded,
but no damages. If the garnishee appeared and the plaintiff made
default, the garnishee recovered. If both appeared, and the
plaintiff recovered; he had judgment against the defendant for
the chattel demanded, and a distringas in execution and against
the garnishee a judgment for damages, and a fi. fa. in execution.
The verdict and judgment must be such, that a special remedy may
be had for the recovery of the goods detained, or a satisfaction
in value for each parcel, in case they, or either of them, cannot
be returned. Walker, R. 538 7 Ala. R. 189; 4 Yerg. R. 570 4
Monr. 59; 7 Ala. R., 807.; 5 Miss. R. 489; 6 Monr. 52 4 Dana,
58; 3 B. Munr. 313; 2 Humph. 59. The judgment is in the
alternative, that the plaintiff recover the goods or the value
thereof, if he cannot have the goods themselves, and his damages.
Bro. Abr. Det. 48, 26, 3, 25; 4 Dana, R. 58; 2 Humph. 59; 3 B.
Mont. 313, for the detention and full costs. Vide, generally, 1
Chit. Pl. 117; 3 Bl. Com. 152; 2 Reeve's Hist. C. L. 261, 333,
336; 3 Id. 66, 74; Bull. N. P. 50. This action has yielded to
the more practical and less technical action of trover. 3 Bl.
Com. 152.
DETINUIT, practice. He detained.
2. Where an action of replevin is instituted for goods which
the defendant had taken, but which he afterwards restored, it is
said to be brought in the detinuit; in such case the judgment
is, that the plaintiff recover the damages assessed by the jury
for the taking and unjust detention, or for the latter only,
where the former was justifiable, and his costs. 4 Bouv. Inst. n.
3562. 3. When the replevin is in the detinet, that he detains the
goods, the jury must find in addition to the above, the value of
the chattels, (assuming they are still detained, not in a gross
sum, but each separate article must be separately valued, for
perhaps the defendant may restore some of them, in which case the
plaintiff is to recover the value of the remainder. Vide Debet et
Detinet.
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DEVASTAVIT. A devastavit is a mis-management and waste by an
executor, administrator, or other trustee of the estate and
effects trusted to him, as such, by which a loss occurs.
2. It takes place by direct abuse, by mal-administration, and
by neglect.
3. - §1. By direct abuse. This takes place when the executor,
administrator, or trustee, sells, embezzles, or converts to his
own use, the goods entrusted to him; Com. Dig. Administration, I
1; releases a claim due to the estate; 8 Bac. Abr. 700; Hob.
266; Cro. Eliz. 43; 7 John. R. 404; 9 Mass. 352; or
surrenders a lease below its value. 2 John. Cas. 376; 3 P. Wms.
330. These instances sufficiently show that any wilful waste of
the property will be considered as a direct devastavit.
4. - §2. By mal-administration. Devastavit by
mal-administration most frequently occurs by the payment of
claims which were not due nor owing; or by paying others out of
the order in which they ought to be paid; or by the payment of
legacies before all the, debts have been satisfied. 4 Serg. &
Rawle, 394; 5 Rawle, 266.
5. - §3. By neglect. Negligence on the part of an executor,
administrator, or trustee, may equally tend to the waste of the
estate, as the direct destruction or mal-administration of the
assets, and render him guilty of a devastavit. The neglect to
sell the goods at a fair price, within a reasonable time, or, if
they are perishable goods, before they are wasted, will be a
devastavit. And a neglect to collect a doubtful debt, which by
proper exertion might have been collected, will be so considered.
Bac. Ab. Executors, L.
6. The law requires from trustees, good faith and due
diligence, the want of which is punished by making them
responsible for the losses which may be sustained by the property
entrusted to them when, therefore, a party has been guilty of a
devastavit, he is required to. make up the loss out of his own
estate. Vide Com. Dig. Administration, I; 11 Vin. Ab. 306; 1
Supp. to Ves. jr. 209; 1 Vern. 328; 7 East, R. 257 1 Binn. 194;
1 Serg. & Rawle, 241 1 John. R. 396; 1 Caines' Cas. 96 Bac. Ab.
Executor, L; 11 Toull. 58, 59, n. 48.
DEVIATION, insurance, contracts. A voluntary departure, without
necessity, or any reasonable cause, from the regular and usual
course of the voyage insured.
2. From the moment this happens, the voyage is changed, the
contract determined, and the insurer discharged from all
subsequent responsibility. By the contract, the insurer only runs
the risk of the contract agreed upon, and no other; and it is,
therefore, a condition implied in the policy, that the ship shall
proceed to her port of destination by the. shortest and safest
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course, and on no account to deviate from that course, but in
cases of necessity. 1 Mood. & Rob. 60; 17 Ves. 364; 3 Bing.
637; 12 East, 578.
3. The effect of a deviation is not to vitiate or avoid the
policy, but only to determine the liability of the underwriters
from the time of the deviation. If, therefore, the ship or goods,
after the voyage has commenced, receive damage, then the ship
deviates, and afterwards a loss happen, there, though the insurer
is discharged from the time of the deviation, and is not
answerable for the subsequent loss, yet he is bound to make good
the damage sustained previous to the deviation. 2 Lord Raym. 842
2 Salk. 444.
4. But though he is thus disebarged from subsequent
responsibility, he is entitled to retain the whole premium.
Dougl. 271; 1 Marsh. Ins. 183; Park. Ins. 294. See 2 Phil. Ev.
60, n. (b) where the American cases are cited.
5. What amounts to a deviation is not easily defined, but a
departure from the usual course of the voyage, or remaining at
places where the ship is authorized to touch, longer than
necessary, or doing there what the insured is not authorized to
do; as, if the ship have merely liberty to touch at a point, and
the insured stay there to trade, or break bulk, it is a
deviation. 4 Dall. 274 1 Peters' C. C. R. 104; Marsh. Ins. B. 1,
c. 6, s. 2. By the course of the voyage is not meant the shortest
course the ship can take from her port of departure to her port
of destination, but the regular and customary track, if such
there be, which long us usage has proved to be the safest and
most convenient. 1 Marsh. Ins. 185. See 3 Johns. Cas. 352; 7 T.
R. 162.
6. A deviation that will discharge the insurer, must be a
voluntary departure from the usual course of the voyage insured,
and not warranted by any necessity. If a deviation can be
justified by necessity, it will not affect the contract; and
necessity will justify a deviation, though it proceed from a
cause not insured against. The cases of necessity which are most
frequently adduced to justify a departure from the direct or
usual course of the voyage, are, 1st. Stress of weather. 2d. The
want of necessary repairs. 3d. Joining convoy. 4th. Succouring
ships in distress. 5th. Avoiding capture or detention. 6th.
Sickness of the master or mariner. 7th. Mutiny of the crew. See
Park, Ins. c. 17; 1 Bouv. Inst. n. 1187, et seq.; 2 John. Cas.
296; 11 Johns. R. 241; Pet. C. C. R. 98; 2 Johns. Rep. 89; 14
Johns. R. 315; 2 Johns. R. 138; 9 Johns. R. 192; 8 Johns. Rep.
491; 13 Mass. 68 13 Mass. 539; Id. 118; 14 Mass. 12 1 Johns.
Cas. 313; 11 Johns. R. 241; 3 Johns. R. 352; 10 Johns. R. 83;
1 Johns. R. 301; 9 Mass. 436, 447; 3 Binn. 457 7 Mass. 349; 5
Mass. 1; 8 Mass. 308 6 Mass. 102 121 6 Mass. 122 7 Cranch, 26;
Id. 487; 3 Wheat. 159 7 Mass. 365; 10 Mass. 21 Id. 347 7 Johns.
Rep. 864; 3 Johns. R. 352; 4 Dall. R. 274 5 Binn. 403; 2 Serg.
& Raw. 309; 2 Cranch, 240.
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DEVIATION, contracts. When a plan has been adopted for a
building, and in the progress of the work a change has been made
from the original plan, the change is called a deviation.
2. When the contract is to build a house according to the
original plan, and a deviation takes place, the contract shall be
traced as far as possible, and the additions, if any have been
made, shall be paid for according to the usual rate of charging.
3 Barn. & Ald. 47; and see 1 Ves. jr. 60; 10 Ves. jr. 306; 14
Ves. 413; 13 Ves. 73; Id. 81 6 Johns. Ch. R. 38; 3 Cranch,
270; 5 Cranch, 262; 3 Ves. 693; 7 Ves. 274; Chit. Contr. 168;
9 Pick. 298.
3. The Civil Code of Louisiana, art. 2734, provides, that when
an architect or other workman has undertaken the building of a
house by the job, according to a plot agreed on between him and
the owner of the ground, he cannot claim an increase of the price
agreed on, on the plea of the original plot having been changed
and extended, unless he can prove that such changes have been
made in compliance with the wishes of the proprietor.
DEVISAVIT VEL NON, practice. The name of an issue sent out of a
court of chancery, or one which exercises chancery jurisdiction,
to a court of law, to try the validity of a paper asserted and
denied to be a will, to ascertain whether or not the testator did
devise, or whether or not that paper was his will. 7 Bro. P. C.
437; 2 Atk. 424; 5 Barr, 21.
DEVISE. A devise is a disposition of real property by a
person's last will and testament, to tale effect after the
testator's death.
2. Its form is immaterial, provided the instrument is to take
effect after the death of the party; and a paper in the form of
an indenture, which is to have that effect, is considered as a
devise. Finch. 195 6 Watts, 522; 3 Rawle, 15; 4 Desaus. 617,
313; 1 Mod. 117; 1 Black. R. 345.
3. The term devise, properly and technically, applies only to
real estate the object of the devise must therefore be that kind
of property. 1 Hill. Ab. ch. 36, n. 62 to 74. Devise is also
sometimes improperly applied to a bequest or legacy. (q. v.) Vide
2 Bouv. Inst. n. 2095, et seq; 4 Kent, Com. 489 8 Vin. Ab. 41
Com. Dig. Estates by Devise.
4. In the Year Book, 9 H. VI. 24, b. A. D. 1430, Babington
says, the nature of a devise, when lands are devisable, is, that
one can devise that his lands shall be sold by executors and this
is good. And a devise in such form has always been in use. And so
a man may have frank tenement of him who had nothing, in the same
manner as one may have fire from a flint, and yet there is no
fire in the flint. But it is to perform the last will of the
devisor.
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DEVISEE. A person to whom a devise has been made.
2. All persons who are in rerum natura, and even embryos, may
be devisees, unless excepted by some positive law. In general, he
who can acquire property by his labor and industry, may receive a
devise. C. & N. 353.
DEVISOR. A testator; one, who devises his real estate.
2. As a general rule all persons who. may sell an estate may
devise it. The disabilities of devisors may be classed, in three
divisions. 1. Infancy. In some of the United States this
disability is partially removed; in Illinois, Maryland,
Mississippi and Ohio, an unmarried woman at the age of eighteen
years may devise. 2. Coverture. In general, a married woman
cannot devise; but in. Connecticut and Ohio she may devise her
lands; and in Illinois, her separate estate. In Louisiana, she
may devise without the consent of her hushand. Code, art. 132. 3.
Idiocy and non sane memory. It is evident that a person non
compos can make no devise, because he has no will.
3. The removal of the disability which existed at the time of
the devise does, not, of itself, render it valid. For example,
when the hushand dies, and the wife becomes a feme sole; when
one non compos is restored to his sense; and when an infant
becomes of age; these several acts do not make a will good,
which at its making was void. 11 Mod. 123, 157; 2 Vern . 475;
Comb, 84; 4 Rawle, R. 3.36. Vide. Testament or ill.
DEVOIR. Duty. It is used in the statute of 2 Ric. II., c. 3, in
the sense of duties or customs.
DEVOLUTION, eccl. law. The transfer, by forfeiture, of a right
and power which a person has to another, on account of some act
or negligence of the person who is vested with such right or
power: for example, when a person has the right of preseptation,
and he does not present within the time prescribed, the right
devolves on his next immediate superior. Ayl. Par. 331.
DI COLONNA, mar. contracts. This contract tales place between
the owner of a ship, the captain and the mariners, who agree that
the voyage shall be for the benefit of all. This is a term used
in the Italian law. Targa, oh. 36, 37: Emerigon, Mar. Loans, s.
5.
2. The New England whalers are owned and navigated in this
manner, and under this species of contract. The captain and his
mariners are all interested in the profits of the voyage in
certain proportion, in the same manner as the captain and crew of
a privateer, according to the agreement between them. Such
agreement, being very common in former times, all the mariners
and the masters being interested in the voyage. It is. necessary
to know this, in order to understand many of the provisions of
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the laws of Oleron, Wishuy, the Consolato del Mare, and other
ancient codes of maritime and commercial law. Hall on Mar. Loans,
42.
TO DICTATE. To pronounce word for word what is destined to be
at the same time written by another. Merlin Rep. mot Suggestion,
p. 5 00; Toull. Dr. Civ. Fr. liv. 3, t. 2, c. 5, n. 410.
DICTATOR, civil law. A Magistrate at Rome invested with
absolute power. His authority over the lives and fortunes of the
citizens was without bounds. His office continued but for six
months. Hist. de Ia Jur. h. t.; Dig. l, 2, 18; Id. 1, 1, 1.
DICTUM, practice. Dicta are judicial opinions expressed by the
judges on points that do not necessarily arise in the case.
2. Dicta are regarded as of little authority, on account of the
manner in which they are delivered; it frequently happening that
they are given without much reflection, at the bar, without
previous examination. "If," says Huston, J., in Frants v. Brown,
17 Serg. & Rawle, 292, "general dicta in cases turning on special
circumstances are to be considered as establishing the law,
nothing is yet settled, or can be long settled." "What I have
said or written, out of the case trying," continues the learned
judge, "or shall say or write, under such circumstances, maybe
taken as my opinion at the time, without argument or full
consideration; but I will never consider myself bound by it when
the point is fairly trying and fully argued and considered. And I
protest against any person considering such obiter dicta as my
deliberate opinion." And it was considered by another learned
judge. Mr. Baron Richards, to be a "great misfortune that dicta
are taken down from judges, perhaps incorrectly, and then cited
as absolute propositions." 1 Phillim. Rep. 1406; S. C. 1 Eng.
Ecc. R. 129; Ram. on Judgm. ch. 5, p. 36; Willes' Rep. 666; 1
H. Bl. 53-63; 2 Bos. & P. 375; 7 T. R. 287; 3 B. & A. 341; 2
Bing. 90. The doctrine of the courts of France on this subject is
stated in 11 Toull. 177, n. 133.
3. In the French law, the report of a judgment made by one of
the judges who has given it, is called the dictum. Poth. Proc.
Civ. partie 1, c. 5, art. 2.
DIES. A day. There are four sorts of days: 1. A natural day;
as, the morning and the evening made the first day. 2. An
artificial day; that is, from day-break until twilight in the
evening. 3. An astrological day, dies astrologicus, from sun to
sun. 4. A legal day, which is dies juridicus, and dies non
juridicus. 1. Dies juridici, are all days given in term to the
parties in court. Dies non juridici are those which are not
appointed to do business in court, as Sundays, and the like. Dies
in banco, days of appearance in the English court of common
bench. 3 Bl. Com. 276. Vide Day, and 3 Com. Dig. 358.
DIES DATUS, practice. A day or time given to a defendant in a
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suit, which is in fact a continuance of the cause. It is so
called when given before a declaration; when it is allowed
afterwards it assumes the name of imparlance. (q. v.)
DIES NON or DIES NON JURIDICI. Non-judicial days. Days during
which courts do not transact any business, as Sunday. The entry
of judgment upon such a day is void. W . Jones, 156.
DIET. An assembly held by persons having authority to manage
the public affairs of the nation. In Germany, such assemblies are
known by this name:
DIFFERENCE. A dispute, contest, disagreement, quarrel.
DIGEST, civil law. The name sometimes given to the Pandects of
Justinian; it is so called because this compilation is reduced
to order, quasi digestiae.
2. It is an abridgment of the decisions of the praetors and the
works of the learned, and ancient writers on the law. It was made
by order of the emperor Justinian, who, in 530, published an
ordinance entitled De Conceptione Digestorum, which was addressed
to Tribonian, and by which he was required to select some of the
most distinguished lawyers to assist him in composing a
collection of the best decisions of the ancient lawyers, and
compile them is fifty books, without confusion or contradiction.
The work was immediately commenced, and completed on the 16th of
December, 533.
3. The Digest is divided in two different ways; the first,
into fifty books, each book into several titles, and each title
into several laws at the head of each of them is the name of the
lawyer from. whose work it was taken.
4. - 1. The first book contains twenty-two titles; the subject
of the first is De justicia et jure; of the division of person
and things; of magistrates, &c.
5. - 2. The second, divided into fifteen titles, treats of the
power of magistrates and their jurisdiction; the manner of
commencing suits; of agreements and compromises.
6. - 3. The third, composed of six titles, treats of those who
can and those who cannot sue; of advocates and attorneys and
syndics; and of calumny.
7. - 4. The fourth, divided into nine titles, treats of causes
of restitution of submissions and arbitrations; of minors,
carriers by water, innkeepers and those who have the care of the
property of others.
8. - 5. In the fifth there are six titles, which. treat of
jurisdiction and inofficious testaments.
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9. - 6. The subject, of the sixth, in which there are three
titles, is actions.
10. - 7. The seventh, in nine titles, embraces whatever
concerns usufructs, personal servitudes, babitations, the uses of
real estate, and its appurtenances, and of the sureties required
of the usufructuary.
11. - 18. The eighth book, in six titles, regulates urban and
rural servitudes.
12. - 9. The ninth book, in four titles, explains certain
personal actions.
13. - 10. The tenth, in four titles, treats of mixed actions.
14.-11. The object of the eleventh book, containing eight
titles, is to regulate interrogatories, the cases of which the
judge was to take cognizance, fugitive slaves, of gamblers, of
surveyors who made false reports, and of funerals and funeral
expenses.
15. - 12. The twelfth book, in seven titles, regulates personal
actions in which the plaintiff claims the title of a thing.
16. - 13. The thirteenth, treats of certain particular actions,
in seven titles.
17. - 14. This, like the last, regulates certain actions: it
has six titles.
18. - 15. The fifteenth, in four titles, treats of actions for
which a father or master is liable, in consequence of the acts of
his children or slaves, and those to which he is entitled; of
the peculium of children and slaves, and of the actions on this
right.
19.-16. The sixteenth, in three titles, contains the law.
relating to the senatus consultum velleianum, of compensation or
set off, and of the action of deposit.
20. - 17. The seventeenth, in two titles, expounds the law of
mandates and partnership.
21. - 18. The eigbteenth book, in seven titles, explains the
contract of sale.
22. - 19. The nineteenth, in five titles, treats of the actions
which arise on a contract of sale.
23. - 20. The law relating to pawns, hypothecation, the
preference among creditors, and subrogation, occupy the twentieth
book, which contains six titles.
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24. - 21. The twenty-first book, explains under three titles,
the edict of the ediles relating to the sale of slaves and
animals; then what relates to evictions and warranties.
25. - 22. The twenty-second treats of interest, profits and
accessories of things, proofs, presumptions, and of ignorance of
law and fact. It is divided into six titles.
26. - 23. The twenty-third, in five titles, contains the law of
marriage, and its accompanying agreements.
27. - 24. The twenty-fourth, in three titles, regulates
donations between hushand and wife, divorces, and their
consequence.
28. - 25. The twenty-fifth is a continuation of the subject of
the preceding. It contains seven titles.
29. - 26 and 27. These two books, each in two titles, contain
the law relating to tutorship and curatorship.
30. - 28. The twenty-eighth, in eight titles, contain's the law
on last wills and testaments.
31. - 29. The twenty-ninth, in seven titles, is the
continuation of the twenty-eighth book.
32. - 30, 31, and 32. These three books, each divided into two
titles, contain the law of trusts and specific legacies.
33. - 33, 34, and 35. The first of these, divided into ten
titles; the second, into nine titles; and the last into three
titles, treat of various kinds of legacies.
34. - 36. The thirty-sixth, containing four titles, explains
the senatus consultum trebellianum, and the time when trusts
become due.
35. - 37. This book, containing fifteen titles, has two objects
first, to regulate successions; and, secondly, the respect which
children owe their parents, and freedmen their patrons.
36. - 38. The thirty-eighth book, in seventeen titles, treats
of a variety of subjects; of successions, and of the degree of
kindred in successions; of possession; and of heirs.
37. - 39. The thirty-ninth explains the means which the law and
the prAEtor take to prevent a threatened iNjury; and donations
inter vivos and mortis causa.
38. - 40. The fortieth, in sixteen titles, treats of the state
and condition of persons, and of what relates to freedmen and
liberty.
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39. - 41. The different means of acquiring and losing title to
property, are explained in the forty-first book, in ten titles.
40. - 42. The forty-second, in eight titles, treats of the res
judicata, and of the seizure and sale of the property of a
debtor.
41. - 43. Interdicts or possessory actions are the object of
the forty-third book, in three titles.
42.-44. The forty-fourth contains an enumeration of defences
which arise in consequence of the resjudicata, from the lapse of
time, prescription, and the like. This occupies six titles; the
seventh treats of obligations and actions.
43. - 45. This speaks of stipulations, by freedmen, or by
slaves. It contains only three titles.
44. - 46. This book, in eight titles, treats of securities,
novations, and delegations, payments, releases, and
acceptilations.
45. - 47. In the forty-seventh book are explained the
punishments inflicted for private crimes, de privates delictis,
among which are included larcenies, slander, libels, offences
against religion, and public manners, removing boundaries, and
other similar offences.
46. - 48. This book treats of public crimes, among which are
enumerated those Iaesae majestatis, adultery, murder, poisoning,
parricide, extortion, and the like, with rules for procedure in
such cases.
47. - 49. The forty-ninth, in eighteen titles, t reats of
appeals, of the rights of the public treasury, of those who are
in captivity, and of their repurchase.
48. - 50. The last book, in seventeen titles, explains the
rights of municipalities. and then treats of a variety of public
officers.
49. Besides this division, Justinian made another, in which the
fifty books were divided into seven parts: The first contains the
first four books; the second, from the fifth to the eleventh
book inclusive; the third, from the twelfth to the nineteenth
inclusive; the fourth, from title twentieth to the
twenty-seventh inclusive; the fifth, from the twenty-eighth to
the thirty-sixth inclusive the sixth, commenced with the thirty
seventh, and ended with the forty-fourth book; and the seventh
or last was composed of the last six books.
50. A third division, which, however, is said not to have been
made by Justinian, is in three parts. The first, called digestum
vetus, because it was the first printed. It commences with the
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first book, and. includes the work to the end of the second title
of the twenty-fourth book. The second, called digestum
infortiatum, because it is supported or fortified by the other
two, it being the middle; it commences with the begining of the
third title of the twenty-fourth book and ends with the
thirty-eighth. The third, which begins with the thirty-ninth book
and ends with the work, is called digestum novum, because it was
last printed.
51. The Digest, although, compiled in Constantinople, was
originally written in Latin, and afterwards translated into
Greek.
52. This work was lost to all Europe during a considerable
period, as indeed all the law works of Justinian were, except
some fragments of the Code and Novels. During the pillage of
Amalphi, in the war between the two soi-disant popes Innocent II.
and Anaclet II., a soldier discovered an old manuscript, which
attracted his attention by its envelope of many colors. It was
carried to the emperor, Clothaire II., and proved to be the
Pandects of Justinian. The work was arranged in its present order
by Warner, a German, whose name, Latinised, is Irnerius, who was
appointed professor of Roman law at Bologna, by that emperor. 1
Fournel, Hist. des Avocats, 44, 46, 51.
53. The Pandects contain all whatsoever Justinian drew out of
150,000 verses of the old books of the Roman law. The style of
the Digest is very grave and pure, and differs not much from the
eloquentist speech that ever the Romans used." The learning of
the digest stands rather in the discussing of subtle questions of
law, and enumeratious of the variety of opinions of ancient
lawyers thereupon, than in practical matters of daily use. The
Code of Justinian differs in these respects from, the Digest. It
is less methodical, but more practical; the style however, is a
barbarous Thracian phrase Latinised, such as never any mean
Latinist spoke. The work is otherwise rude and unskilful.
Ridley's View of the Civ. & Ecc. Law, pt. 1, ch. 2, §1, and ch.
1, §2.
54. Different opinions are entertained upon the merits of the
Digest, or Pandects, Code, Authentics and Feuds, as a system of
jurisprudence. By some it has been severely criticised, and even
harshly censured, and by others as warmly defended the one party
discovering nothing but defects, and the other as obstinately
determined to find nothing but what is good and valuable. See
Felangieri della Legislazione, vol. 1, c. 7. It must be confessed
that it is not without defects. It might have been comprehended
in less extent, and in some parts arranged in better order. It
must be confessed also that it is less congenial as a whole, with
the principles of free government, than the common law of
England. Yet, with all these defects, it is a rich fountain of
learning and reason; and of this monument of the high culture
and wisdom of the Roman jurists it may be said, as of all other
works in which the good so much surpasses the bad.
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Ut plura intent in carmine non ego paucis
Offendar maculis, quas aut incuria fudit
Aut humana parum cavit natura.
HORAT. ART. POETIC, v. 351.
DIGNITIES. English law. Titles of honor.
2. They are considered as incorporeal hereditaments.
3. The genius of our government forbids their admission into
the republic.
DILAPIDATION. Literally, this signifies the injury done to a
building by taking stones from it; but in its figurative, which
is also its technical sense, it means the waste committed or
permitted upon a building.
DILATORY. That which is intended for delay. It is a maxim, that
delays in law are odious, dilationes in lege sunt odiosae.
Plowd. 75.
DILATORY DEFENCE. chancery practice. A dilatory defence is one,
the object of which is to dismiss, suspend, or obstruct the suit,
without touching the merits, until the impediment or obstacle
insisted on shall be removed.
2. These defences are of four kinds: 1. To the jurisdiction of
the court. 2. To the person of the plaintiff or defendant. 3. To
the form of proceedings, as that the suit is irregularly brought,
or it is defective in its appropriate allegation of the parties;
and, 4. To the propriety of maintaining the suit itself, because
of the pendancy of another suit for the same controversy. Montag.
Eq. Pl. 88; Story Eq. Pl. §434. Vide Defence: Plea, dilatory.
DILATORY PLEAS. Those which delay the plaintiff's remedy, by
questioning, not the cause of action, but the propriety of the
suit, or the mode in which the remedy is sought. Vide Plea,
dilatory.
DILIGENCE, contracts. The doing things in proper time.
2. It may be divided into three degrees, namely: ordinary
diligence, extraordinary diligence, and slight diligence. It is
the reverse of negligence. (q. v.) Under that article is shown
what degree of negligence, or want of diligence, will make a
party to a contract responsible to the other. Vide Story, Bailm.
Index h. t.; Ayl. Pand. 113 1 Miles, Rep. 40.
DILIGENCE. In Scotland, there are certain forms of law, whereby
a creditor endeavors to make good his payment, either by
affecting the person of his debtor, or by securing the subjects
belonging to him from alienation, or by carrying the property of
these subjects to himself. They are either real or personal.
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2. Real diligence is that which is proper to heritable or real
rights,. and of this kind there are two sorts: 1. Inhibitions. 2.
Adjudication, which the law has substituted in the place of
apprising.
3. Personal diligence is that by which the person of the debtor
may be secured, or his personal estate affected. Ersk. Pr. L.
Scotl. B. 2, t. 11, s. 1.
DIME, money. A silver coin of the United States, of the value
of one-tenth
part of a dollar or ten cents.
2. It weighs forty-one and a quarter grains. Of one thousand
parts, nine hundred are of pure silver and one hundred of alloy.
Act of January 18, 1837, s. 8 and 9, 4 Sharsw. cont. of Story's
L. U. S. 2523-4.
DIMINUTION OF THE RECORD, practice. This phrase signifies that
the record from an inferior court, sent up to a superior, is
incomplete. When this is the case, the parties may suggest a
diminution of the record, and pray a writ of/ certiorari to the
justices of the court below to certify the whole record. Tidd's
Pr. 1109; 1 S. & R. 472; Co. Ent. 232; 8 Vin. Ab. 552; 1
Lilly's Ab. 245; 1 Nels. Ab. 658; Cro. Jac. 597; Cro. Car. 91;
Minor, R. 20; 4 Dev. R. 575; 1 Dey. & Bat. 382; 1 Munf. R.
119. Vide Certiorari.
DIOCESE, eccl. law. The district over which a bishop exercises
his spiritual functions. 1 B1. Com. 111.
DIPLOMA. An instrument of writing, executed by, a corporation
or society, certifying that a certain person therein named is
entitled to a certain distinction therein mentioned.
2. It is usually, granted by learned institutions to their
members, or to persons who have studied in them.
3. Proof of the seal of a medical institution and of the
signatures of its officers thereto affixed, by comparison with
the seal and signatures attached to a diploma received by the
witness from the same institution, has been held to be competent
evidence of the genuineness of the instrument, although the
witness never saw the officers write their names. 25 Wend. R.
469.
4. This word, which is also written duploma, in the civil law,
signifies letters issued by a prince. They are so called, it is
supposed, a duplicatis tabellis, to which Ovid is thought to
allude, 1 Amor. 12, 2, 27, when he says, Tunc ego vos duplices
rebus pro nomine sensi Sueton in Augustum, c. 26. Seals also were
called Diplomata. Vicat ad verb.
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DIPLOMACY., The science which treats of the relations and
interests of nations with nations.
DIPLOMATIC AGENTS. This name has been given to public officers,
who have been commissioned, according to law, to superintend and
transact the affairs of the government which has employed them,
in a foreign country. Vattel, liv. 4, c. 5.
2. These agents are of divers orders, and are known by
different denominations. Those of the first order are almost the
perfect representatives of the government by which they are
commissioned; they are legates, nuncios, internuncios,
ambassadors, ministers, plenipotentiaries. Those of the second
order do not so fully represent their government; they are
envoys, residents, ministers, charges d'affaires, and consuls.
Vide these several words.
DIPLOMATICS. The art of judging of ancient charters, public
documents or diplomas, and discriminating the true from the
false. Encyc. Lond. h. t.
DIRECT. Straight forward; not collateral.
2. The direct line of descents for example, is formed by a
series of degrees between persons who descend one from another.
Civ. Code of Lo. art. 886.
DIRECTION. The order and government of an institution; the
persons who compose the board of directors are jointly called the
direction. Direction, in another sense, is nearly synonymous with
instruction. (q. v.)
DIRECTION, practice. That part of a bill in chancery which
contains the address of the bill to the court; this must of
course, contain the appropriate and technical description of the
court.
DIRECTOR OF THE MINT. An officer whose duties are prescribed by
the Act of Congress of January 18, 18 37, 4 Sharsw. Cont. of
Story L. U. S. 2524, as follows: The director shall have the
control and management of the mint, the superintendence of the
officers and persons employed therein, and the general regulation
and supervision of the business of the several branches. And in
the month of January of every year he shall make report to the
president of the United States of the operation of the mint and
its branches for the year preceding. And also to the secretary of
the treasury, from time to time, as said secretary shall require,
setting forth all the operations of the mint subsequent to the
last report made upon the subject.
2. The director is required to appoint, with the approbation of
the president, assistants to the assayer, melter and refiner,
chief coiner and engraver, and clerks to the director and
treasurer, whenever, on representation made by the director to
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the president, it shall be the opinion of the president that such
assistants or clerks are necessary. And bonds may be required
from such assistants and clerks in such sums as the director
shall determine, with the approbation of the secretary of the
treasury. The salary of the director of the mint, for his
services, including travelling expenses incurred in visiting the
different branches, and all other charges whatever, is three
thousand five hundred dollars.
DIRECTORS. Persons appointed or elected according to law,
authorized to manage and direct the affairs of a corporation or
company. The whole of the directors collectively form, the board
of directors.
2. They are generally invested with certain powers by the acts
of the legislature, to which they owe their existence.
3. In modern corporations, created by statutes, it is generally
contemplated by the charter, that the business of the corporation
shall be transacted exclusively by the directors. 2 Caines' R.
381. And the acts of such a board, evidenced by a legal vote, are
as completely binding upon the corporation, and as complete
authority to their agents, as the most solemn acts done under the
corporate seal. 8 Wheat. R. 357, 8.
4. To make a legal board of directors, they must meet at a time
when, and a place where, every other director has the opportunity
of attending to consult and be consuited with; and there must be
a sufficient number present to constitute a quorum. 3 L. R. 574;
13 L. R. 527; 6 L. R. 759. See 11 Mass. 288; 5 Litt. R. 45; 12
S. & R. 256; 1 Pet. S. C. R. 46. Vide Dane's Ab. h. t.
5. Directors of a corporation are trustees, and as such are
required to use due diligence and attention to its concerns, and
are bound to a faithful discharge of the duty which the situation
imposes. They are liable to the stockhoders whenever there has
been gross negligence or fraud; but not for unintentional
errors. 1 Edw. Ch. R. 513; 8 N. S. 80; 3. L. R. 576. See 4
Mann. & Gr. 552.
DIRECTORY. That which points out a thing or course of
proceeding; for example, a directory law.
DIRIMANT IMPEDIMENTS, canon law. Those bars to a marriage,
which, if consummated, render it null. They differ from
prohibitive impediments. (q. v.)
DISABILITY. The want of legal capacity to do a thing.
2. Persons may be under disability, 1. To make contracts. 2. To
bring actions.
3. - 1. Those who want understanding; as idiots, lunatics,
drunkards, and infants or freedom to exercise their will, as
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married women, and persons in duress; or who, in consequence of
their situation, are forbidden by the policy of the law to enter
into contracts, as trustees, executors, administrators, or
guardians, are under disabilities to make contracts. See
Pa7-ties; Contracts.
4. - 2. The disabilities to sue are, 1. Alienage, when the
alien is an enemy. Bac. Ab. Abatement, B 3; Id. Alien, E: Com.
Dig. Abatement , K; Co. Litt. 129. 2. Coverture; unless as
co-plaintiff with her hushand, a married woman cannot sue. 3.
Infancy; unless he appears by guardian or prochein ami. Co.
Litt. 135, b; 2 Saund. 117, f, n. 1 Bac. Ab. Infancy, K 2 Conn.
357; 7 John. 373; Gould, Pl. c. 5, §54. 4. That no such person
as that named has any existence, is not, or never was, in rerum
natura. Com. Dig. Abatement, E 16, 17; 1 Chit. Pl. 435; Gould
on Pl. c. 5, §58; Lawes' Pl. 104; 19 John. 308. By the law of
England there are other disabilities; these are, 1. Outlawry. 2.
Attainder. 3. Praemunire. 4. Popish recusancy. 5. Monachism.
5. In the acts of limitation it is provided that persons lying
under certain disabilities, such as being non compos, an infant,
in prison, or under coverture, shall have the right to bring
actions after the disability shall have been removed.
6. In the construction of this saving in the acts, it has been
decided that two disabilities shall not be joined when they occur
in different persons; as, if a right of entry accrue to a feme
covert, and during the coverture she die, and the right descends
to her infant son. But the rule is otherwise when there are
several disabilities in the same person; as, if the right
accrues to an infant, and before he has attained his full age, he
becomes non compos mentis; in this case he may establish his
right after the removal of the last disability. 2 Prest. Abs. of
Tit. 341 Shep. To. 31; 3 Tho. Co. Litt. pl. 18, note L; 2 H.
Bl. 584; 5 Whart. R. 377. Vide Incapacity.
DISAFFIRMANCE. The act by which a person who has entered into a
voidable contract; as, for example, an infant, does disagree to
such contract, and declares he will not abide by it.
2. Disaffirmance is express or implied. The former, when the
declaration is made in terms that the party will not abide by the
contract. The latter, when he does an act which plainly manifests
his determination not to abide by it; as, where an infant made a
deed for his land, and, on coming of age, be made a deed for the
same land to another. 2 Dev. & Bat. 320; 10 Pet. 58; 13 Mass.
371, 375.
TO DISAVOW. To deny the authority by which an agent pretends to
have acted as when he has exceeded the bounds of his authority.
2. It is the duty of the principal to fulfil the contracts
which have been entered into by his authorized agent; and when
an agent has exceeded his authority, he ought promptly to disavow
such act, so that the other party may have his remedy against the
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agent. See Agent; Principal.
DIshURSEMENT. Literally, to take money out of a purse.
Figuratively, to pay out money; to expend mouey; and some-
times it signifies to advance money.
2. A master of a ship makes dishursements, whether with his
own money or that of the owner, when he defrays expenses for the
ship.
3. An executor, guardian, trustee, or other accountant, is said
to have made dishursements when he expended money on account of
the estate which he holds. These, when properly made, are always
allowed in the settlement of the accounts.
DISCHARGE, practice. The act by which a person in confinement,
under some legal process, or held on an accusation of some crime
or misdemeauor, is set at liberty; the writing containing the
order for his being so set at liberty, is also called a
discharge.
2. The discharge of a defendant, in prison under a ca. sa.,
when made by the plaintiff, has the operation of satisfying the
debt, the plaintiff having no other remedy. 4 T. R. 526. But when
the discharge is in consequence of the insolvent laws, or the
defendant dies in prison, the debt is not satisfied. In the first
place the plaintiff has a remedy against the property of the
defendant, acquired after his discharge, and, in the last case,
against the executors or administrators of the debtor. Bac. Ab.
Execution, D; Bingh. on Execution, 266.
DISCHARGE OF A CONTRACT. The act of making a contract or
agreement null.
2. Contracts may be discharged by, 1. Payment. 2. Accord and
satisfaction. 8 Com. Dig. 917; 1 Nels. Abr. 18; 1 Lilly's Reg.
10, 16; Hall's Dig. 7 1 Poth. Ob. 345. 3. Release. 8 Com. Dig.
906; 3 Nels. Ab. 69; 18 Vin. Ab. 294; 1 Vin. Abr. 192; 2
Saund. 48, a; Gow. on Partn. 225, 230; 15 Serg. & Rawle, 441;
1 Poth Ob. 897. 4. Set off. 8 Vin. Ab. 556, Discount; Hall's
Dig. 226, 496; 7 Com. Dig. 335, Pleader, 2 G 17; 1 Poth. Ob.
408. 5. The rescission of the contracts. 1 Com. Dig. 289, note x;
8 Com. Dig. 349; Chit. on Contr. 276. 6. Extinguishment. 7 Vin:
Abr. 367; 14 Serg. & Rawle, 209, 290; 8 Com. Dig. 394; 2 Nels.
Abr. 818; 18 Vin. Abr. 493 to 515; 11 Vin. Abr. 461. 7.
Confusion, where the duty to pay and the right to receive unite
in the same person. 8 Serg. & Rawle, 24-30 1 Poth. 425. 8.
Extinction, or the loss of the subject matter of the contract.
Bac. Abr. 48 8 Com. Dig. *349; 1 Poth. Ob. 429. 9. Defeasance. 2
Saund. 47, n. note 1. 10. The inability of one of the parties to
fulfil his part. Hall's Dig. 40. 11. The death of the contractor,
as where he undertook to teach an apprentice. 12. Bankruptcy. 13.
By the act of limitations. 14. By lapse of time. Angell on Adv.
Enjoym. passim; 15 Vin. Abr. 52, 99; 2 Saund. 63, n. b; Id.
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66, n. 8; Id. 67, n. 10; Gow on Partn. 235; 1, Poth. 443, 449.
15. By neglecting to give notice to the, person charged. Chit. on
Bills, 245. 16. By releasing one of two partners. See Receipt.
17. By neglecting to sue the principal at the request of the
surety, the latter is discharged. 8 Serg. & Rawle, 110. 18. By
the discharge of a defendant, who has been arrested under a
capias ad satisfaciendum. 8 Cowen, R. 171. 19. By a certificate
and discharge under the bankrupt laws. Act of Congress of August,
1841.
DISCHARGE OF A JURY, practice. The dismissal of a jury who had
been charged with the trial of a cause.
2. Questions frequently arise, whether if the court discharge a
jury before they render a verdict, in a criminal case, the
prisoner can again be tried. In cases affecting life or members,
the general rule is that when a jury have been sworn and charged,
they cannot be discharged by the court, or any other, but ought
to give a verdict. But to this rule there are many exceptions;
for example, when the jury are discharged at the request or with
the consent of the prisoner and for his benefit, when ill
practices have been used; when the prisoner becomes insane, or
becomes suddenly ill, so that he cannot defend himself, or
instruct others in his defence; when a juror or witness is taken
suddenly ill; when a juror has absented himself, or, on account
of his intoxication, is incapable to perform his duties as a
juror. These and many similar cases, which may be readily
imagined, render the discharge of the jury a matter of necessity,
and; under such very extraordinary and striking circumstances,
it is impossible to proceed with the trial, with justice to the
prisoner or to the state.
3. The exception to the rule, then, is grounded on necessity,
and not merely because the jury cannot agree. 6 Serg. & Rawle,
577; 3 Rawle's Rep. 501. In all these cases the court must
exercise a just discretion in deciding what is and what is not a
case of necessity. This is the law as to the exceptions in
Pennsylvania. In other states, and some of the courts of the
United States, it has been ruled that the authority of the court
to discharge the jury rests in the sound discretion of the court.
4 Wash. C. C. R. 409; 18 Johns. 187; 2 Johns. Cas. 301; 2
Gall. 364; 9 Mass. 494; 1 Johns. Rep. 66; 2 Johns. Cas. 275 2
Gallis. 364; 13 Wend. 55; Mart. & Yerg. 278; 3 Rawle, 498; 2
Dev. & Bat. 162; 6 S. & R. 577; 2 Misso. 166; 9 Leigh, 613;
10 Yerg. 535; 3 Humph. 70. Vide 4 Taunt. 309.
4. A distinction has been made between capital cases and other
criminal cases, not capital. In cases of misdemeanors and in
civil cases, the right to discharge rests in the sound discretion
of the court, which is to be exercised with great caution. 9
Mass. 494; 3 Dev. & Batt. 115. In Pennsylvania this point seems
not to be settled. 6 Serg. & Rawle, 599. The reader is referred
to the word Jeopardy, and Story on the Const. §1781; 9 Wheat. R.
579; Rawle on the Const. 132, 133; 1 Chit. Cr. Law, 629; 1
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Dev. 491; 4 Ala. R. 173; 2 McLean, 114. See Afforce.
DISCHARGED. Released, or liberated from custody. It is not
equivalent to acquitted in a declaration for a malicious
prosecution. 2 Yeates, 475 2 Term Rep. 231; 1 Strange, 114;
Doug. 205 3 Leon. 100.
DISCLAIMER. This word signifies. to abandon, to renounce; also
the act by which the renunciation is made. For example, a
disclaimer is the act by which a patentee renounces a part of his
title of invention,
2. In real actions, a disclaimer of the tenancy or title is
frequently added to the plea of non tenure. Litt. §391. If the
action be one in which the demandant cannot recover damages, as
formedon in the discender, the demandant or plaintiff was bound
to pray judgment, &c., and enter, for thereby, he has the effect
of his suit, et frustra fit per plura quod fieri potest per
pauciora. But, if the demandant can recover damages and is
unwilling to waive them, he should answer the disclaimer by
averring that the defendant is tenant of the land, or claims to
be such as the writ supposes, and proceed to try the question,
otherwise he would lose his damages. The same course may be
pursued in the action of ejectment, although in Pennsylvania, the
formality of such a replication to the disclaimer is dispensed
with, and the fact is tried without it. 5 Watts, 70; 3 Barr,
367. Yet, if the plaintiff is willing to waive his claim for
damages, there is no reason why he may not ask for judgment upon
the disclaimer without trial, for thereby he has the effect of
his suit. Et frustra fit per plura, &c.
DISCLAIMER, chancery pleading. The renunciation of the
defendant to all claims to the subject of the demand made by the
plaintiff's bill.
2. A disclaimer is distinct in substance from an answer, though
sometimes confounded with it, but it seldom can be put in without
an answer for if the defendant has been made a party by mistake,
having had an interest which be has parted with, the plaintiff
may require an answer sufficient to ascertain whether that is the
fact or not. Mitf. Pl. 11, 14, 253; Coop. Eq. Pl. 309; Story,
Eq. Pl. c. 17, §838 to 844; 4 Bouv. Inst. n. 4211-14.
DISCLAIMER, estates. The act of a party by which be refuses to
accept of an estate which has been conveyed to him. Vide Assent;
Dissent.
2. It is said, that a disclaimer of a freehold estate must be
in a court of record, because a freehold shall not be divested by
bare words, in pais. Cruise, Dig. tit. 32, c. 2 6, s. 1, 2.
3. A disclaimer of tenancy is the act of a person in
possession, who denies holding the estate from the person
claiming to be the owner of it. 2 Nev. & M. 672. Vide 8 Vin.. Ab.
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501; Coote, L. & T. 348, 375; F. N. B. 179 k; Bull. N. P. 96;
16 East, R. 99; 1 Man. & Gran. 135; S. C. 39 Eng. C. L. Rep.
380, 385; 10 B. & Cr. 816; ow, N. P. Cas. 180; 2 Nov. & Man.
673; 1 C. M. & R. 398 Co. Litt. 102, a.
DISCONTINUANCE, pleading. A chasm or interruption in the
pleading.
2. It is a rule, that every pleading, must be an answer to the
whole of what is adversly alleged. Com. Dig. Pleader, E 1, ri 4;
1 Saund. 28, n. 3; 4 Rep. 62, a. If, therefore, in an action of
trespass for breaking a close, and cutting three hundred trees,
the defendant pleads as to cutting all but two hundred trees,
some matter of justifica- tion or title, and as to the two
hundred trees says nothing, the plaintiff is entitled to sign
judgment, as by nil dicit against him, in respect of the two
hundred trees, and to demur, or reply to the plea, as to the
remainder of the trespasses. On the other hand, if he demurs or
replies to the plea, without signing, judgment for the part not
answered, the whole action is said to be discontinued. For the
plea, if taken by the plaintiff as an answer to the, whole
action, it being, in fact, a partial answer only, is, in
contemplation of law, a mere nullity, and a discontinuance takes
place. And such discontinuance will amount to error on the
record; such error is cured, however, after verdict, by the
statute of Jeo fails, 32 H. VIII. c. 80; and after judgment by
nil dicit, confession, or non sum informatus, by stat. 4 Ann. c.
16. It is to be observed, that as to the plaintiff's course of
proceeding, there is a distinction between a case like this,
where the defendant does not profess to answer the whole, and a
case where, by the commencement of his plea, he professes to do
so, but, in fact, gives a defective and partial answer, applying
to part only. The latter case amounts merely to insufficient
pleading, and the plaintiff's course, therefore, is not to sign
judgment for the part defectively answered, but to demur to the
whole plea. 1 Saund. 28, n.
3. It is to be observed, also, that where the part of pleading
to which no answer is given, is immaterial, or such as requires
no separate or specific answer for example, if it be mere matter
of allegation, the rule does not in that case apply. Id. See Com.
Dig. Pleader, W; Bac. Abr. Pleas, P.
DISCONTINUANCE, estates. An alienation made or suffered by the
tenant in tail, or other tenant seised in autre droit, by which
the issue in, tail, or heir or successor, or those in reversion
or remainder, are driven to their action, and cannot enter.
2. The term discontinuance is used to distinguish those cases
where the party whose freehold is ousted, can restore it only by
action, from those in which he ma restore it by entry. Co. Litt.
325 a 3 Bl. Com. 171; Ad. Ej. 35 to 41; Com. Dig. h. t.; Bac.
Ab. h. t.; Vin. Ab. h. t.; Cruise's Dig. Index, b.. t..5 2
Saund. Index, h. t.
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DISCONTINUANCE, practice. This takes place when a plaintiff
leaves a chasm in the proceedings of his cause, as by not
continuing the process regularly from day to day, and time to
time, as he ought. 3 Bl. Com. 296. See Continuance. A
discontinuance, also, is an entry upon the record that the
plaintiff discontinues his action.
2. The plaintiff cannot discontinue his action after a demurrer
joined and entered, or after a verdict or a writ of inquiry
without leave of court. Cro. Jac. 35 1, Lilly's Abr. 473; 6
Watts & Serg. 1417. The plaintiff is, on discontinuance,
generally liable for costs. But in some cases, he is not so
liable. See 3 Johns. R. 249; 1 Caines' R. 116; 1 Johns. R. 143;
6 Johns. R. 333; 18 Johns. R. 252; 2 Caines' Rep. 380; Com.
Dig. Pleader, W 5; Bac. Abr. Pleas' P.
DISCOUNT, practice. A set off, or defalcation in an action.
Vin. Ab. h. t. DISCOUNT, contracts. An allowance made upon prompt
payment in the purchase of goods; it is also the interest
allowed in advancing money upon bills of exchange, or other
negotiable securities due at a future time And to discount,
signifies the act of buying a bill of exchange, or promissory
note for a less sum than that which upon its face, is payable.
2. Among merchants, the term used when a bill of exchange is
transferred, is, that the bill is sold, and not that it is
discounted. See Poth. De l'Usure, n. 128 3 Pet. R. 40.
DISCOVERT. Not covert, unmarried. The term is applied to a
woman unmarried, or widow; one not within the bonds of
matrimony.
DISCOVERY, intern. law. The act of finding an unknown country.
2. The nations of Europe adopted the principle, that the
discovery of any part of America gave title to the government by
whose subjects, or by whose authority it was made, against all
European governments. This title was to be consummated by
possession. 8 Wheat. 543.
DISCOVERY, practice, pleading. The act of disclosing or
revealing by a defendant, in his answer to a bill filed against
him in a court of equity. Vide Bill of Discovery; 8 Vin. Ab.
537; 8 Com. Dig: 515.
DISCOVERY; rights. The patent laws of the United States use
this word as synonymous with invention or improvement of July 4,
1836, s. 6.
TO DISCREDIT, practice, evidence. To deprive one of credit or
confidence.
2. In general, a party may discredit a witness called by the
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opposite party, who testifies against him, by proving that his
character is such as not to entitle him to credit or confidence,
or any other fact which shows he is not, entitled to belief. It
is clearly settled, also, that the party voluntarily calling a
witness, cannot afterwards impeach his character for truth and
veracity. 1 Moo. & Rob. 414; 3 B. & Cress. 746; S. C. 10 Eng.
Com. Law R. 220. But if a party calls a witness, who turns out
unfavorable, he may call another to prove the same point. 2
Campb. R. 556 2 Stark. R. 334; S. C. 3 E. C. L. R. 371 1 Nev &
Man. 34; 4 B. & Adolph. 193; S. C. 24 E. C. L. R. 47; 1 Phil.
Ev. 229; Rosc. Civ. Ev. 96.
DISCREPANCY. A difference between one thing and another,
between one writing and another; a variance. (q. v.)
2. Discrepancies are material and immaterial. A discrepancy is
immaterial when there is such a difference between a thing
alleged, and a thing offered in evidence, as to show they are not
substantially the same; as, when the plaintiff in his
declaration for a malicious arrest averred, that "the plaintiff,
in that action, did not prosecute his said suit, but therein made
default," and the record was, that he obtained a rule to
discontinue. 4 M. & M. 2 5 3. An immaterial discrepancy is one
which does not materially affect the cause as, where a
declaration stated that a deed bore date in a certain year of our
Lord, and the deed was simply dated " March 30, 1701." 2 Salk.
658; 19 John. 49 5 Taunt. 707; 2 B. & A. 301; 8 Miss. R. 428;
2 M'Lean, 69; 1 Metc. 59; 21 Pick. 486.
DISCRETION, practice. When it is said that something is left to
the discretion of a judge, it signifies that he ought to decide
according to the rules of equity, and the nature of
circumstances. Louis. Code, art. 3522, No. 13; 2 Inst. 50, 298;
4 Serg. & Rawle, 265; 3 Burr. 2539.
2. The discretion of a judge is said to be the law of tyrants;
it is always unkown; it is different in different men; it is
casual, and depends upon constitution, temper, and passion. In
the best, it is oftentimes caprice; in the worst, it is every
vice, folly, and passion, to which human nature is liable. Optima
lex quae minimum relinquit arbitrio judicis: optimus judex qui
minimum sibi. Bac. Aph; 1 Day's Cas.. 80, ii.; 1 Pow. Mortg.
247, a; 2 Supp. to Ves. Jr. 391; Toull. liv. 3, n. 338; 1
Lill. Ab. 447.
3. There is a species of discretion which is authorized by
express law, and, without which, justice cannot be administered;
for example, an old offender, a man of much intelligence and
cunning, whose talents render him dangerous to the community,
induces a young man of weak intellect to commit a larceny in
company with himself; they are both liable to be punished for
the offence. The law, foreseeing such a case, has provided that
the punishment should be proportioned, so as to do justice, and
it has left such apportionment to the discretion of the judge. It
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is evident that, without such discretion, justice could not be
administered, for one of these parties assuredly deserves a much
more severe punishment than the other.
DISCRETION, crim. law. The ability to know and distinguish
between good and evil; between what is lawful and what is
unlawful.
2. The age at which children are said to have discretion, is
not very accurately ascertained. Under seven years, it seems that
no circumstances of mischievous discretion can be admitted to
overthrow the strong presumption of innocence, which is raised by
an age so tender. 1 Hale, P. C. 27, 8; 4 Bl. Coin. 23. Between
the ages of seven and fourteen, the infant is, prima facie,
destitute of criminal design, but this presumption diminishes as
the age increases, and even during this interval of youth, may be
repelled by positive evidence of vicious intention; for
tenderness of years will not excuse a maturity in crime, the
maxim in these cases being, malitia supplet aetatem. At fourteen,
children are said to have acquired legal discretion. 1 Hale, P.
C. 25.
DISCRETIONARY TRUSTS. Those which cannot be duly administered
without the application of a certain degree of prudence and
judgment; as when a fund is given to trustees to be distributed
in certain charities to be selected by the trustees.
DISCUSSION, civil law. A proceeding, on the part of a surety,
by which. the property of the principal debtor is made liable
before resort can be had to the sureties; this is called the
benefit of discussion. This is the law in Louisiana. Civ. Code of
Lo. art. 3014 to 3020. See Domat, 3, 4, 1 to 4; Burge on Sur.
329, 343, 348; 5 Toull. p. 544 7 Toull. p. 93; 2 Bouv. Inst. n.
1414.
DISFRANCHISEMENT. The act of depriving a member of a
corporation of his right as such, by expulsion. 1 Bouv. Inst. n.
192.
2. It differs from amotion, (q. v.) which is applicable to the
removal of an officer from office, leaving him his rights as a
member. Willc. on Corp. n. 708; Ang. & Ames on Corp. 237; and
see Expulsion.
DISGRACE. Ignominy, shame, dishonor. No witness is required to
disgrace himself. 13 How. St. Tr. 17, 334; 16 How. St. Tr. 161.
Vide Crimination; To Degrade.
DISHERISON. Disinheritance; depriving one of an inheritance.
Obsolete. Vide Disinherison.
DISHERITOR. One who disinherits, or puts another out of his
freehold. Obsolete.
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TO DISHONOR, contr. This term is applied to the nonfulfilment
of commercial engagements. To dishonor a bill of exchange, or a
promissory note, is to refuse or neglect to pay it at maturity.
2. The holder is bound to give notice to the parties to such
instrument of its dishonor, and his laches will discharge the
indorsers. Chit. on Bills, 394, 395, 256 to 278.
DISINHERISON, civil law. The act of depriving a forced heir of
the inheritance which the law gives him.
2. In Louisiana, forced heirs may be deprived of their
legitime, or legal portion, and of the seisin granted them by
law, for just cause. The disinherison must be made in proper
form, by name and expressly, and for a just cause, otherwise it
is null.
3. The just causes for which parents may disinherit their
children, are ten in number. 1. If the child has raised his or
her hand to strike the parent, or if he or she has actually
struck the parent; but a mere threat is not sufficient. 2. If
the child has been guilty, towards a parent, of cruelty, of a
crime, or grievous injury. 3. If the child has attempted to take
away the life of either parent. 4. If the child has accused
either parent of any capital crime, except, however, that of high
treason. 5. If the child has refused sustenance to a parent,
having the means to afford it. 6. If the child has neglected to
take care of a parent, become insane. 7. If a child has refused
to ransom them when detained in captivity. 8. If the child used
any act of violence or coercion to hinder a parent from making a
will. 9. If the child has refused to become security for a
parent, having the means, in order to take him out of prison. 10.
If the son. or daughter, being a minor, marries without the
consent of his or her parents. Civil Code, art. 1609-1613.
4. The ascendants may disinherit their Iegitimate decendants,
coming to their succession for the first nine causes above
expressed, when the, acts of ingratitude, there mentioned, have
been committed towards them, instead of towards their parents;
but they cannot disinherit their descendants for the last cause.
Art. 1614.
5. Legitimate children, dying without issue, and leaving a
parent,. cannot disinherit him or her, unless for the seven
following causes, to wit: 1. If the parent has accused the child
of a capital crime, except, however, the crime of high treason.
2. If the parent has attempted to take the child's life. 3. If
the parent has, by any violence or force, hindered the child from
making a will. 4. If the parent has refused sustenance to the
child in necessity, having the means of affording it. 5. If the
parent has neglected to take care of the child when in a state of
insanity. 6. If the parent has neglected to ransom the child when
in captivity. 7. If the father or mother have attempted the life
the one of the other, in which case the child or descendant,
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making a will, may disinherit the one who has attempted the life
of the other. Art. 1615.
6. The testator must express in the will for what reason he
disinherited his forced heirs, or any of them, and the other
heirs of the testator are moreover obliged to prove the facts on
which the disinherison is founded, otherwise it is null. Art.
1616. Vide Nov 115 Ayl. Pand. B. 2, t. 29; Swinb. art 7, 22.
DISINHERITANCE. The act by which a person deprives his heir of
an inheritance, who, without such act, would inherit.
2. By the common law, any one may give his estate to a
stranger, and thereby disinherit his heir apparent. Coop. Justin.
495. 7 East, Rep. 106.
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